Kachru's Three Circles of English

World Englishes refers to the emergence of localised or indigenisedvarieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in nations colonised by Great Britain or influenced by the United States. World Englishes consist of varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally, and how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of colonial English in different regions of the world.

The issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as an international and intra-national language. In 1988, at a Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) conference in Honolulu, Hawaii, the International Committee of the Study of World Englishes (ICWE) was formed.[In 1992, the ICWE formally launched the International Association for World Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at the University of Illinois, USA.^[1]

Currently, there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a first language (L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalisedsecond language (L2) in fields such as government, law and education. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered.^[2]

EFL, English as a foreign or second language

ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages), and EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the use or study of English by speakers with different native languages. The precise usage, including the different use of the terms ESL and ESOL in different countries, is described below. These terms are most commonly used in relation to teaching and learning English, but they may also be used in relation to demographic information.

ELT (English language teaching) is a widely-used teacher-centred term, as in the English language teaching divisions of large publishing houses, ELT training, etc. The abbreviations TESL (teaching English as a second language), TESOL (teaching English to speakers of other languages) and TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) are also used.
Other terms used in this field include EAL (English as an additional language), EIL (English as an international language), ELF (English as a lingua franca), ESP (English for special purposes, or English for specific purposes), EAP (English for academic purposes). Some terms that refer to those who are learning English are ELL (English language learner), LEP (limited English proficiency) and CLD (culturally and linguistically diverse).

All Mr.Fay’s Most Favourite Poems

(1)Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening
By Robert Frost

Whose woods these are I think I know.
His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer,
To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.

Hi gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely ,dark, and deep.
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

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POEMS TAKEN FROM A HANDBOOK OF 2ND GRADE ISLAMIC PRIMARY SCHOOL OF INDIA

A  PRAYER ALLAH, we thank thee for the night And for the pleasant morning light. For rest and food and loving care, And all that makes the world so fair. Help us to do the things we should, To be to others kind and good. In all we do, in all we say, To grow more loving everyday

ALLAH Say, ALLAH is One, Like HIM there is none. No son or daughter has HE, Nor born to any is HE. All things bright and beautiful, All creatures so, so wonderful, All things, big and small, ALLAH alone made them all.

DENOTATIVE AND CONNOTATIVE VIEW ON COMMERCIAL ADS SLOGAN

A. INTRODUCTION

The meaning of words in a language is related to their referents in the real world. At above words there are eleven words which will be elaborated each of its referent: LIFE, APPLE,WAS, MUCH, EASIER, WHEN, APPLE, AND, BLACKBERRY, WERE, JUST and FRUITS. Those words can be described as follows:




B. DISCUSSION:

A.  INTRALINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

NO	WORD	REFERENCE (IDEAS, THE CONCEPT)
1	Life	Inanimate, Abstract entity, condition that distinguishes human beings, animals and plants from earth , rock, etc.
2	was	One of  the Past tense to be, showing state
3	much	It is used for the uncountable plural noun, similar to the word “many”
4	Easier	Not difficult, free from pain, discomfort, anxiety, trouble etc.
5	when	Showing period or time something happened.
6	Apple	Inanimate, one kind of fruit, its shape is round, it has firm juicy flesh. Its skin is green, red or yellow when the fruit is ripe.
7	and	A conjunction connecting words, clauses and sentences
8	Blackberry	Inanimate, commonly found in USA, a kind of small berry, this fruit when ripe growing wild on bushes called brambles.
9	were	One of the past tense to be, showing state
10	just	Used in Great Britain in the perfect tenses and often in US with the simple  past tense, place with the verb, to indicate an immediate past..
11	Fruits	Inanimate, collective pattern, parts of a plant or tree. They contain the seeds. It is also used as food e.g. Apples, bananas.

At first there is a word of “Life”. This word as the part of message of that slogan is given by human being aimed at the same kind of creature. So, the word “Life” in this case refers to the life of human being in living their daily life. Then it is stated that “Life was much easier” which means that human life in the past time was assumed as “lesser difficulty or “much easier”. The life of human being will be predictably easier if “Apple and Blacberry were just fruits”. In this context the communicator try to propose a problem by delivering a direct comparison between the entity of Apple and Blackberry as the real fresh fruits and Apple and Blackberry as modern technological gadget findings.

In addition, the word “Apple” denotatively refers to a round fruit with firm juice flesh a skin that is green, red and yellow when the fruit is ripe. In addition, in the context of modern era the word “Apple” refer to the Steve job’s famous brand of computer and electronic gadget like iMac, iPod, iPhone and iPad. People around the world mostly youngsters in urban area will have this famous brand in mind when they hear someone saying the word “Apple”.
Besides that the word “BlackBerry” denotatively refers to the small berry which when it ripe, it grows wild on bushes. Similar to the case of the modern context of the word “Apple”, this word associate to the company of RIM issued this famous product all over the world.

The most interesting thing from that slogan is the hidden  or implicit effort of the communicator of this slogan to say how hard the competition companies which want to promote their product brands and how the use of sophisticated gadget of famous brand will also create competition of the pride in social and cultural status. Most teenagers will be happy and feel proud if the can buy and use both famous technological gadgets. They will ready to stand in line to buy the newest release of Apple and Blackberry as their favorite products.

B.  EXTRALINGUISTIC ANALYSIS

Besides comprehending this sentence linguistically, this sentence can also be understood by the help of Pragmatic study. There is a context of utterance circled this utterance. According the study of pragmatics, the utterance of “Life was much easier when Apple and Blackberry were just fruits “can be elaborated as follows:

The communicator is a person or group of individual who doesn’t belong to the brand of Apple and Blackberry user. The communicant is everyone who read this banner. The objective and context of the utterance is a notification or remainder that in the past it was easier to consider Apple and Blackberry as just the names of fruits. The today’s boastful pride of having the product of Apple and blackberry is annoying and makes some people feel hurt.

In the view of sociolinguistic study the utterance of “Life was much easier when Apple and Blackberry were just fruits “can be elaborated as follows: in each society, there is a tentative or assumed collective mind (the set of shared rules, norms and social system) that the more sophisticated and expensive gadget someone has will reflect his or her value before the eyes of everyone. This collective mind is tentative since there are some people who think that it is very naive that the value of someone is determined by the type or kind of gadget someone has.

                                                       

C. CLOSURE

The communicator of the slogan has been successfully conveying the idea of the hard battle of rivalry among the fans of the product of Apple and BlackBerry. Before the existence of both new reference, they were just fruits as a part of a tree or plant that is used as food like bananas, grapes or apples.

APA BEDA ANTARA GRAMMAR DAN STRUCTURE?

pertanyaan:
Dear all,

Apa sebenarnya perbedaan antara (grammar) tata bahasa dan struktur (structure) ? Jika mereka adalah sama, mengapa mereka digunakan bersama-sama? Thanks in advance.
jawaban:
Tata bahasa adalah suatu sistem aturan produksi yang digunakan untuk mengurai dan menghasilkan makna, pengucapan, morfologi, dan sintaksis kalimat. Struktur mengacu pada komponen-komponen suara yang diberikan, kata, frase, dan kalimat. Sebagai contoh, kalimat
kalimat dalam bahasa inggris : Jed drinks milk:

Syntactic structure: subject+verb+object
Production rule: English is an SVO language

Morphological structure: drink takes -s
Production rule: a subject must agree with its verb

jawaban lain:
Tata bahasa (grammar) adalah norma-norma sosial, sikap komunal, atau konvensi kolektif. Struktur adalah variasi sintaksis dan morfologi masyarakat yang telah mencapai konsensus

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Pragmatics Meaning vs. Semantics Meaning

Curious about the pragmatic meaning vs. semantic meaning in linguistics? Learning the difference can not only help linguistics students, it can also help new language learners. The following article describes the difference between the two terms and shows examples of them.

Whether you are taking a class on linguistics or are teaching a language class, understanding pragmatic meaning vs. semantic meaning can be a valuable tool to maximize learning in the classroom. Although semantics and pragmatics are both terms used in relation to the meanings of words, their usage is drastically different.

What Is Semantics?

Semantics refers to the meaning of words in a language and the meaning within the sentence. Semantics considers the meaning of the sentence without the context. The field of semantics focus on three basic things: “the relations of words to the objects denoted by them, the relations of words to the interpreters of them, and, in symbolic logic, the formal relations of signs to one another (syntax)" [1]. Semantics is just the meaning that the grammar and vocabulary impart, it does not account for any implied meaning.

Pragmatic Meaning

When you consider the pragmatic meaning vs. semantic meaning, you find that they are quite different. Pragmatics deals with all of those same words and grammar except within context. In each situation, the various listeners in the conversation define the ultimate meaning of the words. For example, if you were to tell your wife, “You look good in that dress,” it would be a compliment according to the semantic meaning. The meaning of the words and the sentence on their own is a positive thing. Pragmatically, this could be insult. Had your wife just tried on a different dress? She could assume that your intended compliment actually implied that her first outfit looked terrible.

Pragmatics Meaning vs. Semantics Meaning

Gricean cooperative principle: pragmatics

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Contoh Thesis Proposal conversational implicature in SALT movie subtitles

     THESIS PROPOSAL

THE ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN “SALT” MOVIE SUBTITLES

A.    Background of the Study

In communication, people use language. They do more to get another person understand the speaker’s thoughts and feelings. To know what the speakers mean, hearers have to interpret what they say. But interpretation is a tricky affair; misunderstandings are always possible and sometimes seem to be the rule rather than the exception (Jacob L. Mey, 1983: 100). According Leech, interpreting an utterance is ultimately a matter of guesswork, or (to use a more dignified term) hypothesis formation (1983:30-1).

Regarding on the above statement, people have to interpret the speaker’s say. In pragmatic, it calls with conversational implicature. Grice say that conversational implicature can be defined as a different (opposite, additional, etc) pragmatic meaning of an utterance with respect to the literal meaning expressed by utterance (Jacob L. Mey, 1998: 371).

In a case of conversational implicature the hearer crucially makes the assumption that the speaker is not violating one of the conversational maxims, relevance, informativeness, or clarity. Implicature is a concept of utterance meaning as opposed to sentence meaning. Furthermore, implicature is related to the method by which speakers work out the indirect illocutions of utterance (James R. Hurford, 1983: 278). We might be found this problem in conversation from the movie.

Movie is a sequence of picture projected on a screen from a developed and prepared film especially with an accompanying sound track (Webster’s Dictionary, 2004: 654). It is one of the human product literature terms. As we know that most of people in the world love movie whether in humor, scary, action, love drama, or others. It can express someone thought and meaning sense. Generally, in the conversational of movie has specific aim. Usually, the conversational makes someone confused with the speaker’s statement.

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FENOMENA PENGANGGURAN INTELEKTUAL

         

 sebagai  seorang pendidik rasanya sungguh berat dan prihatin memikirkan berulang-ulang tentang  frasa  “Pengangguran Intelektual”. Sebuah frasa yang jika dipikir lebih dalam sebagai satu pasangan yang  lumayan ganjil. Sungguh tidak pantas  kata  terhormat “Intelektual” bisa disandingkan dengan kata “Pengangguran”?. Kata “Intelektual” yang di Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia diartikan sebagai  tipe orang yang “Cerdas-jernih berdasarkan ilmu pengetahuan dan memiliki totalitas pengertian atau kesadaran, terutama berkaitan dengan pemikiran dan pemahaman”  masak dijejerkan dengan kata  “Pengangguran”  alias “Pasif -tidak  ada yang dikerjakan”.

Memang  hal ini merupakan fenomena yang aneh tapi nyata :Jumlah sarjana yang menganggur di Indonesia   terus meningkat dari tahun ke tahun. Pada awal tahun 2006 (Januari-Februari), jumlah sarjana yang menganggur menurut  data  BPS ada 385.400 orang. Empat  tahun kemudian jumlahnya sudah melonjak dua kali lipat menjadi 626.600 orang sarjana dari berbagai jurusan dan bidangnya. Angka pengangguran terdidik bertambah besar lagi jika digabungkan dengan pengangguran lulusan diploma yang mencapai 486.400 orang. Para pengangguran terdidik itu merupakan bagian dari pengangguran terbuka secara nasional yang pada Februari 2010 mencapai 9,26 juta atau setara dengan 8,14% dari total angkatan kerja.

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