pertanyaan:
Dear all,
Apa sebenarnya perbedaan antara (grammar) tata bahasa dan struktur (structure) ? Jika mereka adalah sama, mengapa mereka digunakan bersama-sama? Thanks in advance.
jawaban:
Tata bahasa adalah suatu sistem aturan produksi yang digunakan untuk mengurai dan menghasilkan makna, pengucapan, morfologi, dan sintaksis kalimat. Struktur mengacu pada komponen-komponen suara yang diberikan, kata, frase, dan kalimat. Sebagai contoh, kalimat
kalimat dalam bahasa inggris : Jed drinks milk:
Syntactic structure: subject+verb+object
Production rule: English is an SVO language
Morphological structure: drink takes -s
Production rule: a subject must agree with its verb
jawaban lain:
Tata bahasa (grammar) adalah norma-norma sosial, sikap komunal, atau konvensi kolektif. Struktur adalah variasi sintaksis dan morfologi masyarakat yang telah mencapai konsensus
sumber asli : www.usingenglish.com
I'm Learning to Learn, Re-Learn and Un-Learn
Jadi inget masa SMU-ku dulu
Body paint: A group of SMA 1 state senior high school students in Medan paint their uniforms on the last day of national exam. They celebrated Friday the end of a week-long grueling test. – Antara/Irsan Mulyadi
jadi inget masa SMU-ku dulu....tahun 1993....pas masih imut :) saiki amit-amit ^_^
pas naik panggung setelah lulus dengan NEM terbaik dari 3 kelas jurusan IPS baju dan celana seragamku penuh semprotan pylox.betul-betul beda dengan yang meraih NEM terbaik dari IPA-fisika dan IPA-Biologi pakaian seragam mereka sedikitpun ga ada semprotan PYLOX. ^_^
rekaman mp3 pidato Ir.soekarno yang bersemangat sekali
mari donwload PidatoMbakarsemangat1th1963.mp3
download full semua pidato Ir.sukarno
donlot sekarang.klik sini ya
ANTING IBU DAN BAN SEPEDA AYAH
pENTING musyawarah dan berunding di suatu keluarga di gambarkan dalam cerita berikut: Si ibu kehilangan sebelah antingnya dan ban belakang sepeda bapk sdh bocor dan rusak berat.Karena tidak ada musyawarah dalam keluarga itu, si ibu berpikr karena anting yg satu sudah hilang maka ia menjual anting yg satu lagi untuk membelikan ban belakang sepeda bapk(suaminya).Si bapakpun punya pikiran yg serupa dgn si ibu untuk menjual ban sepeda yang depan yg masih bagus dan baik untuk dibelikan anting si ibu yg sebelah hilang itu.JADILAH KEDUA NYA (SI IBU DAN SI BAPAK)BERPIKIR dengan perbuatannya itu saling melengkapi,dan meng-eksperesikan kasih sayang mereka dengan membuat kejutan dalam rumah tangga mereka.NAMUN SAYANG NIAT BAIK si ibu dgn membelikan ban sepeda bapak dan niat baik bapak membelikan sebelah anting si ibu TIDAK DILETAKAN DALAM TAHTA MUSYAWARAH( hasilnya kurang berguna)Singkat cerita si ibu pu pergi ketoko emas untuk menjual antingnya yg sebelah dan kemudian langsung ketoko ban sepeda untuk membeli ban belakang sepeda sang bapak.Si bapak pun buat yg sama menjual ban sedepan ke toko sepeda,dan langsung ke toko emas untuk membeli sebelah anting ibu yg hilang itu.Setelah pulang kerumah ..sampai dirumah mereka saling memberikan hadiah apa yg mereka beli...Ayah kaget si ibu apalagi...pada akhirnya.. SIBAPAK TETAP PUNYA BAN SATU DAN IBU JUGA PUNYA ANTING SATU..bEGITULAH JIKA dalam rumah tangga tidak ada musyawarah yang terjadi hanya SALAH PAHAM,meskipun si ibu dan si bapak mempunyai niat yang baik untuk saling menyenangkan pasangannya tetapi niat baik itu tidak diletakkan pada TAHTA (FORUM) MUSYAWARAH HASINYA DEMIKIAN.( SEMOGA cerita ini ada kebaikan yg kita dalam nya ..salam rumah hati.
sumbernya dari; RUMAH HATI FACEBOOK GROUP
sumbernya dari; RUMAH HATI FACEBOOK GROUP
Salah Kaprah dalam Krama Desa
Bahasa yang digunakan oleh anggota masyarakat bukanlah sesuatu yang mati tetapi akan terus hidup dan berkembang sejalan dengan dinamika keativitas anggota masyarakat di masing-masing wilayah tempat anggota masyarakat itu hidup. Salah satu contohnya dalam penggunaan Bahasa Jawa ialah penggunaan ragam tingkat tutur (undha usuk) bahasa Jawa yang sering disebut Krama Desa. Yang dimaksudkan Krama Desa adalah bahasa Krama yang dipakai oleh orang yang sering dikatakan sebagai kurang dapat berbahasa dengan benar.
Tingkat tutur ini nampak jelas kelihatan aneh, jelek, dan kampungan jika dibandingkan dengan Basa Kedathon (bahasa istana) yang merupakan bahasa yang digunakan oleh para kerabat istana dan wilayah pemakaiannya pun terbatas hanya dalam istana. Ragam ini dianggap indah dan bagus karena prestise sosial tertentu. Di dalam masyarakat yang memuliakan kerajaan, keraton dianggap tempat terhormat bagi orang terhormat pula, bahasanya pun dianggap terhormat dan karena itu patut menjadi acuan bagaimana berbahasa yang baik dan benar. (Sumarsono: 2002:29).
Apabila lebih lanjut dicermati Krama Desa lebih tepat disebut dengan bahasa krama yang kurang baku atau non standar karena banyak kata krama yang tak baku misalnya kata milai (mulai), tanggi (tetangga), tegil (kebun), waos (gigi), percados (percaya), riyadin (idulfitri) atau menghaluskan nama suatu daerah dan kelompok masyarakat yang seharusnya tak perlu dikramakan menjadi Hyper-krama seperti ‘Semarang’, ‘Karanganyar’, ‘Pasar Gedhe’, ‘Pasar Pon’ dan ‘Cina’ menjadi ‘Semawis’, ‘Kawis Enggal’, ‘Peken Ageng’, ‘Peken Pon‘ dan ‘Cinten’.
Melihat fenomena diatas menurut S.S.T Wisnu Sasangka, seorang pakar bahasa Jawa, penamaan Krama Desa sebenarnya merupakan olok-olok yang dilakukan orang kota terhadap orang desa. Saat itu orang yang tak dapat berbahasa dengan benar menurut orang Nagari (orang kota) diidentikkan dengan orang desa sehingga bahasa krama yang digunakan disebut Krama Desa (22:2004).
Hal yang menarik untuk dibahas disini adalah mengenai tepat atau tidaknya sikap orang kota yang dengan sudut pandang “ke-kota-annya” merasa bahasa mereka lebih “indah” dan “bagus” daripada bahasa orang desa. Kata “”Desa” dalam istilah “Krama Desa” bersinonim dengan kata “Kampung” yang jika diperdalam tingkat ejekannya menjadi kata “Kampungan”. Kata “Kampung” dan “Kampungan” berkonotasi tidak mengenal tata krama per-kota-an dan tak tahu sopan santun. Kata Samsudin Berlian seorang pakar linguistik, bahasa adalah kekuasaan. Orang kota yang lebih dekat dengan pusat kekuasaan seolah-olah punya hak istimewa untuk mengembangkan makna kata dan menyusun kamus. Padahal orang desa juga punya hak yang sama (190:2006).
Jika direnungkan lebih dalam setiap kelompok masyarakat entah di kota maupun di desa memiliki daya kreativitas masing-masing dalam mengembangkan bahasa. Kreativitas itu bila secara manasuka (arbitrer) disepakati oleh kelompok masyarakat tertentu akan memperkaya khazanah ragam bahasa Jawa yang ada. Jadi meskipun ungkapan leksikon Krama desa itu seolah-olah terdengar aneh ,kampungan dan salah kaprah rasanya tak ada yang perlu diluruskan dengan ungkapan tersebut. Seperti halnya mendengar ungkapan dialek Banyumasan “Wetenge kencot” (perutnya lapar) atau “Ramane teka“(ayahnya datang). Rasanya tidak ada yang salah. Semua itu adalah wujud kreativitas bahasa yang perlu dihargai dan dihormati eksistensinya.
Dimuat di sosbud.kompasiana.com
Tingkat tutur ini nampak jelas kelihatan aneh, jelek, dan kampungan jika dibandingkan dengan Basa Kedathon (bahasa istana) yang merupakan bahasa yang digunakan oleh para kerabat istana dan wilayah pemakaiannya pun terbatas hanya dalam istana. Ragam ini dianggap indah dan bagus karena prestise sosial tertentu. Di dalam masyarakat yang memuliakan kerajaan, keraton dianggap tempat terhormat bagi orang terhormat pula, bahasanya pun dianggap terhormat dan karena itu patut menjadi acuan bagaimana berbahasa yang baik dan benar. (Sumarsono: 2002:29).
Apabila lebih lanjut dicermati Krama Desa lebih tepat disebut dengan bahasa krama yang kurang baku atau non standar karena banyak kata krama yang tak baku misalnya kata milai (mulai), tanggi (tetangga), tegil (kebun), waos (gigi), percados (percaya), riyadin (idulfitri) atau menghaluskan nama suatu daerah dan kelompok masyarakat yang seharusnya tak perlu dikramakan menjadi Hyper-krama seperti ‘Semarang’, ‘Karanganyar’, ‘Pasar Gedhe’, ‘Pasar Pon’ dan ‘Cina’ menjadi ‘Semawis’, ‘Kawis Enggal’, ‘Peken Ageng’, ‘Peken Pon‘ dan ‘Cinten’.
Melihat fenomena diatas menurut S.S.T Wisnu Sasangka, seorang pakar bahasa Jawa, penamaan Krama Desa sebenarnya merupakan olok-olok yang dilakukan orang kota terhadap orang desa. Saat itu orang yang tak dapat berbahasa dengan benar menurut orang Nagari (orang kota) diidentikkan dengan orang desa sehingga bahasa krama yang digunakan disebut Krama Desa (22:2004).
Hal yang menarik untuk dibahas disini adalah mengenai tepat atau tidaknya sikap orang kota yang dengan sudut pandang “ke-kota-annya” merasa bahasa mereka lebih “indah” dan “bagus” daripada bahasa orang desa. Kata “”Desa” dalam istilah “Krama Desa” bersinonim dengan kata “Kampung” yang jika diperdalam tingkat ejekannya menjadi kata “Kampungan”. Kata “Kampung” dan “Kampungan” berkonotasi tidak mengenal tata krama per-kota-an dan tak tahu sopan santun. Kata Samsudin Berlian seorang pakar linguistik, bahasa adalah kekuasaan. Orang kota yang lebih dekat dengan pusat kekuasaan seolah-olah punya hak istimewa untuk mengembangkan makna kata dan menyusun kamus. Padahal orang desa juga punya hak yang sama (190:2006).
Jika direnungkan lebih dalam setiap kelompok masyarakat entah di kota maupun di desa memiliki daya kreativitas masing-masing dalam mengembangkan bahasa. Kreativitas itu bila secara manasuka (arbitrer) disepakati oleh kelompok masyarakat tertentu akan memperkaya khazanah ragam bahasa Jawa yang ada. Jadi meskipun ungkapan leksikon Krama desa itu seolah-olah terdengar aneh ,kampungan dan salah kaprah rasanya tak ada yang perlu diluruskan dengan ungkapan tersebut. Seperti halnya mendengar ungkapan dialek Banyumasan “Wetenge kencot” (perutnya lapar) atau “Ramane teka“(ayahnya datang). Rasanya tidak ada yang salah. Semua itu adalah wujud kreativitas bahasa yang perlu dihargai dan dihormati eksistensinya.
Dimuat di sosbud.kompasiana.com
ADA APA DENGAN PEMAKZULAN?
ADA APA DENGAN PEMAKZULAN?
Istilah “pemakzulan” belakangan ini begitu populer muncul di tengah ramainya kerja Pansus Bank Century. Ada sebagian kalangan menilai, istilah tersebut merupakan manifestasi sikap khawatir dan paranoid yang berlebihan dari pihak status quo yang takut dijatuhkan kekuasaannya. jika anggota Pansus bisa menemukan penyimpangan dan benar-benar ada perilaku korup di balik kebijakan penalangan Bank Century, bisa jadi “pemakzulan” bukan lagi sebuah wacana dan istilah, melainkan menjadi sebuah realitas politik yang sulit ditolak kebenarannya. Oleh karenanya, sebelum Pansus bertindak “membahayakan”, penguasa perlu memberikan “peringatan dini” bahwa “pemakzulan” tidak dikenal dalam konstitusi. Pesan semacam itulah yang dipahami oleh khalayak umum.
Terlepas dari kontroversi “pemakzulan”, yang jelas situasi politik kontemporer sejak awal telah memanas. Pansus di Senayan sepertinya sedang menggelindingkan “bola liar” yang segera ditangkap berbagai elemen masyarakat. Demonstrasi diberbagai tempat termasuk unjuk rasa tanggal 28 Januari yang telah lewat merupakan salah satu catatan penting bagi Presiden SBY setelah melewati 100 hari kepemimpinannya. Tak hanya kasus Bank Century yang dibidik para pengunjuk rasa, kriminalisasi KPK, diskriminasi hukum, atau maraknya mafia hukum dan peradilan, juga menjadi isu kritis dalam menyikapi perilaku politik pemerintahan dan kekuasaan SBY yang dinilai “gagal” menjalankan amanat rakyat. “Bola liar” itu bisa jadi akan terus menggelinding ke segala penjuru dan membuka kelemahan-kelemahan politik yang selama ini belum terungkap. Rival-rival politik SBY bisa dipastikan akan memanfaatkan suasana politik semacam itu untuk terus menggoyang posisi status quo Presiden SBY dan koalisinya.
Secara etimologis dan morfologis, “pemakzulan” berasal dari kata “MAKZUL” yang dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia bermakna: berhenti memegang jabatan; turun takhta; sesudah mendapat imbuhan Pe-an menjadi “Pemakzulan” memiliki makna: proses, cara, perbuatan memakzulkan. Sehingga yang dimaksud dengan “Pemakzulan” oleh anggota Pansus DPR kepada SBY bermakna: Upaya, proses, cara, perbuatan yang dilakukan oleh anggota Pansus DPR untuk memberhentikan SBY dari jabatannya. Kata “pemakzulan” ini sebenarnya berbeda maknanya dengan kata “Impeachment” yang berasal dari Bahasa Inggris berasal dari kata “to impeach”, yang berarti meminta pertanggungjawaban. Jika tuntutannya terbukti, maka hukumannya adalah “removal from office”, atau pemberhentian dari jabatan. Dengan kata lain, kata “impeachment” itu sendiri bukanlah “pemberhentian”, tetapi baru bersifat penuntutan atas dasar pelanggaran hukum yang dilakukan. Oleh karena itu, dikatakan Charles L. Black, “Strictly speaking, ‘impeachment’ means ‘accusating’ or ‘charge’.” Artinya, kata impeachment itu dalam Bahasa Indonesia dapat kita alih bahasakan sebagai dakwaan atau tuduhani.
Dengan demikian nyatalah bahwa impeachment berarti proses pendakwaan atas perbuatan menyimpang dari pejabat publik. Pengertian demikian seringkali kurang dipahami, sehingga seolah-olah istilah “impeachment” itu identik dengan ‘pemberhentian’. Padahal proses permintaan pertanggungjawaban yang disebut impeachment itu tidak selalu berakhir dengan tindakan pemberhentian terhadap pejabat yang dimintai pertanggungjawaban. Contoh kasus adalah peristiwa yang dialami oleh mantan Presiden Amerika Serikat, Bill Clinton, yang di-impeach oleh House of Representatives, tetapi dalam persidangan Senat tidak dicapai jumlah suara yang diperlukan, sehingga kasus Bill Clinton tidak berakhir dengan pemberhentian.
Melihat dari contoh yang telah terjadi, maka haruslah dibedakan antara perkataan “impeachment” dengan “removal from office” yang berarti pemberhentian dari jabatan. Lembaga impeachment ini hanyalah sarana untuk melakukan pemberhentian terhadap pejabat publik. Namun hasilnya masih tergantung pada proses hukum dan politik yang melingkupinya.
Jadi secara linguistik, “Pemakzulan” tidak sama dengan “Impeachment”. Pemaknaan kedua kata tersebut secara Bahasa jelas memiliki arti yang berbeda. Namun, jika melihat berita yang beredar di media massa mengenai kedua kata tersebut membuat banyak orang yang tidak paham mengenai politik merasa rancu dalam memahami kedua makna kata tersebut.
Kebanyakan orang di jejaring sosial seperti Facebook dan Twitter berkomentar bahwa "makzul" merupakan kata baru. sebenarnya tidak demikian. Berbeda dengan berbagai istilah teknologi yang memang baru dan harus dicari padanannya dalam bahasa Indonesia, konsep pemakzulan sudah dikenal sejak orang-orang kenal sistem pemerintahan. Dan manusia Indonesia sudah membangun negara-negara besar sejak berabad-abad silam. Jadi bisa diperkirakan kata ini sudah sangat lama dikenal dalam bahasa Indonesia, atau mungkin lebih tepat bahasa Melayu, karena istilah bahasa Indonesia sendiri baru dipopulerkan awal abad ke-20.
Untuk melacak kemunculan istilah "makzul" ini dalam tulisan bahasa Melayu, alat yang bagus adalah fasilitas pencarian dari situs web Malay Concordance Project (MCP). Di situs ini bisa dilacak kemunculan sebuah kata dalam naskah-naskah berbahasa Melayu, mulai dari Batu Bersurat Terengganu (ca. abad ke-14) sampai Hikayat Kerajaan Sikka (1925-1953). Kemunculan kata tersebut dapat diurutkan berdasarkan kronologi.
Dengan situs tersebut dapat ditemukan bahwa istilah makzul (dalam bentuk ma'zul) muncul pertama kali di Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah. Hikayat yang disadur dari cerita Persia ini diperkirakan paling tidak ditulis tahun 1450, bahkan mungkin sudah ada sejak tahun 1380. Jadi paling tidak dalam bahasa Melayu istilah ini sudah dikenal sejak lebih dari 450 tahun yang lalu. Jauh dari baru bukan?
Meskipun sudah lama diperkenalkan, para ahli bahasa sebenarnya bertanya-tanya mengapa orang Indonesia harus meminjam istilah ini dari bahasa Arab. Tidak adakah kata Indonesia yang cocok? Ada yang menjawab "pemberhentian", ada juga yang lain memberikan usulan “makzul ialah “dipecat". Walaupun tentunya usulan ini sulit diterima karena bangsa kita sulit menerima keterusterangan dan pandai mengolah kata untuk menutupi realitas yang pahit. Seperti frasa “menyesuaikan harga” sebagai ganti frasa “menaikkan harga”, frasa “masyarakat pra-sejahtera” sebagai ganti frasa “ masyarakat miskin”. Terlebih lagi di jaman orde baru frasa ” mengamankan” sering dipakai untuk “menangkap orang-orang yang dianggap subversip atau menentang penguasa”.
Di sisi yang lain Menurut Sawali Tuhusetya seorang penyair, guru dan blogger terkenal, dari sisi kebahasaan, sesungguhnya “pemakzulan” tidak selalu bermakna upaya seseorang atau kelompok tertentu untuk memberhentikan orang atau kelompok lain dari jabatan, tetapi juga bisa terjadi karena alasan tertentu, seseorang atau kelompok yang bersangkutan meletakkan jabatannya atas inisiatif sendiri.
Di negara-negara maju dan telah memiliki tradisi demokrasi yang mapan, etika dan moral tersebut dipraktikkan, salah satunya, dalam bentuk abdikasi. Istilah abdikasi diserap dari bahasa Inggris “abdication” yang berakar dari kata “dico”; berarti mengumumkan pengunduran diri dari tahta.
Kekuasaan dan jabatan bukanlah tujuan, tetapi sekedar alat. Karena itu. jika seseorang gagal dalam menggunakan alat tersebut untuk mencapai tujuan, lebih baik jabatan itu ia tinggalkan agar untuk memberikan kesempatan kepada orang lain yang memiliki komitmen dan kemampuan untuk menggunakannya sebagai alat untuk mencapai tujuan kekuasaan, yakni untuk menciptakan kebaikan bersama (common goods).
Keterlibatan dalam sebuah kasus atau skandal, merupakan salah satu cermin kegagalan dalam mengemban amanat kekuasaan. Karena itu. seorang pejabat yang terlilit sebuah skandal, sebaiknya non aktif agar proses pemeriksaan dapat berjalan dengan lancar dan transparan. Baru setelah yang bersangkutan ditetapkan bebas dari seluruh dakwaan, maka dapat kembali lagi menjabat jabatan yang sebelumnya ia tinggalkan karena kepercayaan publik akan dapat dipulihkan.
Bentuk Pertanggungjawaban Mengundurkan diri merupakan salah satu wujud pertanggungjawaban kegagalan dan kesalahan. Pejabat-pejabat yang merasa gagal dalam mengemban kepercayaan publik atau terindikasi terlibat dalam penyelewengan kekuasaan atau skandal, mengambil jalan melepaskan jabatannya sebagai manifestasi rasa malu kepada publik.Rasa tak memiliki muka lagi itu menjadi alasan untuk tidak memperpanjang usia kekuasaan, karena telah terjadi ketidakpercayaan publik. Sebab, kepercayaan publik merupakan basis paling elementer dalam praktik berdemokrasi.
Tradisi mengundurkan diri dengan elegan menjadi budaya politik di beberapa maju. Perdana Menteri Jepang, Yasuo Fukuda mengumumkan untuk mengundurkan diri secara mendadak pada 1 September 2008 untuk memecahkan kebuntuan politik Jepang. Alasan yang sama juga dilakukan oleh PM Shlnzo Abe pada saat mengundurkan diri pada 12 September 2007.Abe kehilangan kepercayaan publik setelah didera berbagai skandal korupsi. Fukuda menyatakan dirinya tidak layak lagi memimpin Jepang. Pada Mei 2007, Menteri
Pertanian, Kehutanan, dan Perikanan Toshi-katsi Matsuoka bahkan sampai bunuh diri, karena tak kuasa menahan malu yang disebabkan oleh kebijakan koruptif yang diambilnya dipertanyakan publik.Tradisi abdikasi di Jepang sudah terjadi jauh-jauh hari sebelumnya. Pada April 1989. PM Noboru Takeshila bahkan mengundurkan diri karena korupsi yang tidak dilakukan olehnya sendiri, melainkan dilakukan oleh anggota partainya. LDP (Liberal Democratic Party).
Perdana Menteri Tanzania, Edward Lo-wassa mengundurkan diri pada Februari 2008.karena kasus korupsi yang dilakukan oleh kantornya mulai diselidiki. Ia mengambil langkah abdikasi walaupun bersamaan dengan pernyataan pengunduran diri, ia juga menyatakan bahwa ia tidak bersalah dan belum memiliki kesempatan untuk menjelaskan duduk persoalannya.Namun, karena ia memandang bahwa abdikasi merupakan solusi terbaik untuk menyelamatkan negara, maka ia melakukan langkah itu. Kepentingan jangka panjang demi negara diletakkan jauh lebih tinggi di alas kepentingan jangka pendek, baik dalam konteks pribadi maupun golongan.
Di Amerika Serikat, abdikasi juga menjadi tradisi yang cukup kuat. Pada 31 Juli 2009.Walikota Hoboken. New Jersey, Amerika Serikat, mengundurkan diri dari jabatannya, meski ia tak mengaku bersalah. Pengunduran diri juga telah dilakukan oleh Presiden Nixon pada tahun 1974 karena investigasi terhadap skandal Watergate semakin memojokkan nya.Walaupun pada umumnya mereka mengundurkan diri karena terpaksa, akan tetapi proses abdikasi dilakukan dengan elegan dan memberikan statemen yang elegan pula. Namun, di Indonesia, budaya malu dan abdikasi belum nampak tumbuh. Kalau toh ada pejabat yang terpaksa mengundurkan diri, itu pun karena desakan yang sudah tak terbendung lagi. Dan lebih dari itu. statemen yang dilontarkan tidak elegan dan menunjukkan rasa sakit hati yang seharusnya tidak dialami oleh seorang negarawan.
Statemen itu dapat ditemukan misalnya pada Presiden Soeharto pada saat mengundurkan diri pada Mei 1998 dengan mengatakan "Saya mundur dengan lila legawa . Dan akan segera mundur, mandeg ing pandita. Ora dadi presiden yo ora patheken!". Dalam statemen ini. Soeharto menekankan kata lapang dada dan kerelaan, tapi kalimat terakhirnya menunjukkan secara jelas keterpaksaan yang amat dalarn.Contoh-contoh pengunduran diri lain yang ada di negeri ini hanya sekedar upaya untuk membuat publik lupa. Setelah itu. mereka akan menjabat lagi seolah-olah tak pernah terlibat masalah. Nampaknya budaya kekuasaan di negeri ini agaknya belum memungkinkan adanya “pemakzulan” karena inisiatif sendiri. Alih-alih memakzulkan diri sendiri, jika perlu menghalalkan segala cara untuk mempertahankan kekuasaan, meski ada indikasi kuat telah menunjukkan perilaku anomali kekuasaan.
Pada situasi demikian, kita segera teringat pada ungkapan pujangga Friedrich von Schiller yang pernah dikutip Bung Hatta "zaman besar telah dilahirkan abad, tetapi zaman besar itu hanya menemukan manusia kerdil".
Kita telah melalui banyak zaman yang sering kita sebut dengan orde. Tapi, dari sekian banyak orde, hanya sedikit melahirkan manusia berjiwa besar seperti Bung Hatta yang secara elegan mengundurkan diri pada saat merasakan ada penyelewengan demokrasi pada era kepemimpinannya (bersama Soekarno).
Bung Hatta tak berbuat salah, tapi ia merasa dirinya berada di tempat yang salah. Ia malu pada rakyat yang mempercayai integritas dirinya jika tetap bersikukuh pada jabatannya (sebagai Wakil Presiden mendampingi Presiden Soekarno).
Bagi Bung Hatta, lebih baik menjadi mantan pejabat tapi terhormat, daripada menjadi pejabat tapi tidak terhormat. Suatu sikap yang kini hilang dari umumnya elite politik kita.
Kini, hasil kerja Pansus Bank Century sudah dinantikan oleh rakyat banyak. Jangan sampai kerja berbulan-bulan yang dibiayai uang rakyat itu berbelok arah atau kandas di tengah jalan. Kredibilitas mereka dipertaruhkan. Jangan biarkan rakyat yang sudah memilih mereka melalui Pemilu terkhianati dengan membelokkan arah Pansus jadi makin tidak jelas akibat intervensi dari kelompok tertentu yang merasa terusik lantaran guliran “bola liar” itu. Jika para wakil rakyat tak sanggup menunaikan tugasnya secara jujur dan fair, sudah dipastikan simpati dan empati rakyat akan berbalik sikap menjadi antipati.
Sementara itu, pihak-pihak yang diduga melakukan penyimpangan di balik kebijakan penalangan Bank Century yang konon menggunakan uang negara sebesar 6,7 trilyun itu juga tak perlu kebakaran jenggot. Biarkan para wakil rakyat terus bekerja dan tak perlu melakukan intervensi-intervensi politis yang justru akan membuat atmosfer sosial-politik di negeri ini jadi makin tak menentu. Agaknya, negeri ini belum terlalu parah keadaannya jika para pengendali kekuasaan benar-benar amanah dan kembali ke prinsip mulia siapapun yang duduk di atas sebagai negara sebagai pelayan publik sejati.
Istilah “pemakzulan” belakangan ini begitu populer muncul di tengah ramainya kerja Pansus Bank Century. Ada sebagian kalangan menilai, istilah tersebut merupakan manifestasi sikap khawatir dan paranoid yang berlebihan dari pihak status quo yang takut dijatuhkan kekuasaannya. jika anggota Pansus bisa menemukan penyimpangan dan benar-benar ada perilaku korup di balik kebijakan penalangan Bank Century, bisa jadi “pemakzulan” bukan lagi sebuah wacana dan istilah, melainkan menjadi sebuah realitas politik yang sulit ditolak kebenarannya. Oleh karenanya, sebelum Pansus bertindak “membahayakan”, penguasa perlu memberikan “peringatan dini” bahwa “pemakzulan” tidak dikenal dalam konstitusi. Pesan semacam itulah yang dipahami oleh khalayak umum.
Terlepas dari kontroversi “pemakzulan”, yang jelas situasi politik kontemporer sejak awal telah memanas. Pansus di Senayan sepertinya sedang menggelindingkan “bola liar” yang segera ditangkap berbagai elemen masyarakat. Demonstrasi diberbagai tempat termasuk unjuk rasa tanggal 28 Januari yang telah lewat merupakan salah satu catatan penting bagi Presiden SBY setelah melewati 100 hari kepemimpinannya. Tak hanya kasus Bank Century yang dibidik para pengunjuk rasa, kriminalisasi KPK, diskriminasi hukum, atau maraknya mafia hukum dan peradilan, juga menjadi isu kritis dalam menyikapi perilaku politik pemerintahan dan kekuasaan SBY yang dinilai “gagal” menjalankan amanat rakyat. “Bola liar” itu bisa jadi akan terus menggelinding ke segala penjuru dan membuka kelemahan-kelemahan politik yang selama ini belum terungkap. Rival-rival politik SBY bisa dipastikan akan memanfaatkan suasana politik semacam itu untuk terus menggoyang posisi status quo Presiden SBY dan koalisinya.
Secara etimologis dan morfologis, “pemakzulan” berasal dari kata “MAKZUL” yang dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia bermakna: berhenti memegang jabatan; turun takhta; sesudah mendapat imbuhan Pe-an menjadi “Pemakzulan” memiliki makna: proses, cara, perbuatan memakzulkan. Sehingga yang dimaksud dengan “Pemakzulan” oleh anggota Pansus DPR kepada SBY bermakna: Upaya, proses, cara, perbuatan yang dilakukan oleh anggota Pansus DPR untuk memberhentikan SBY dari jabatannya. Kata “pemakzulan” ini sebenarnya berbeda maknanya dengan kata “Impeachment” yang berasal dari Bahasa Inggris berasal dari kata “to impeach”, yang berarti meminta pertanggungjawaban. Jika tuntutannya terbukti, maka hukumannya adalah “removal from office”, atau pemberhentian dari jabatan. Dengan kata lain, kata “impeachment” itu sendiri bukanlah “pemberhentian”, tetapi baru bersifat penuntutan atas dasar pelanggaran hukum yang dilakukan. Oleh karena itu, dikatakan Charles L. Black, “Strictly speaking, ‘impeachment’ means ‘accusating’ or ‘charge’.” Artinya, kata impeachment itu dalam Bahasa Indonesia dapat kita alih bahasakan sebagai dakwaan atau tuduhani.
Dengan demikian nyatalah bahwa impeachment berarti proses pendakwaan atas perbuatan menyimpang dari pejabat publik. Pengertian demikian seringkali kurang dipahami, sehingga seolah-olah istilah “impeachment” itu identik dengan ‘pemberhentian’. Padahal proses permintaan pertanggungjawaban yang disebut impeachment itu tidak selalu berakhir dengan tindakan pemberhentian terhadap pejabat yang dimintai pertanggungjawaban. Contoh kasus adalah peristiwa yang dialami oleh mantan Presiden Amerika Serikat, Bill Clinton, yang di-impeach oleh House of Representatives, tetapi dalam persidangan Senat tidak dicapai jumlah suara yang diperlukan, sehingga kasus Bill Clinton tidak berakhir dengan pemberhentian.
Melihat dari contoh yang telah terjadi, maka haruslah dibedakan antara perkataan “impeachment” dengan “removal from office” yang berarti pemberhentian dari jabatan. Lembaga impeachment ini hanyalah sarana untuk melakukan pemberhentian terhadap pejabat publik. Namun hasilnya masih tergantung pada proses hukum dan politik yang melingkupinya.
Jadi secara linguistik, “Pemakzulan” tidak sama dengan “Impeachment”. Pemaknaan kedua kata tersebut secara Bahasa jelas memiliki arti yang berbeda. Namun, jika melihat berita yang beredar di media massa mengenai kedua kata tersebut membuat banyak orang yang tidak paham mengenai politik merasa rancu dalam memahami kedua makna kata tersebut.
Kebanyakan orang di jejaring sosial seperti Facebook dan Twitter berkomentar bahwa "makzul" merupakan kata baru. sebenarnya tidak demikian. Berbeda dengan berbagai istilah teknologi yang memang baru dan harus dicari padanannya dalam bahasa Indonesia, konsep pemakzulan sudah dikenal sejak orang-orang kenal sistem pemerintahan. Dan manusia Indonesia sudah membangun negara-negara besar sejak berabad-abad silam. Jadi bisa diperkirakan kata ini sudah sangat lama dikenal dalam bahasa Indonesia, atau mungkin lebih tepat bahasa Melayu, karena istilah bahasa Indonesia sendiri baru dipopulerkan awal abad ke-20.
Untuk melacak kemunculan istilah "makzul" ini dalam tulisan bahasa Melayu, alat yang bagus adalah fasilitas pencarian dari situs web Malay Concordance Project (MCP). Di situs ini bisa dilacak kemunculan sebuah kata dalam naskah-naskah berbahasa Melayu, mulai dari Batu Bersurat Terengganu (ca. abad ke-14) sampai Hikayat Kerajaan Sikka (1925-1953). Kemunculan kata tersebut dapat diurutkan berdasarkan kronologi.
Dengan situs tersebut dapat ditemukan bahwa istilah makzul (dalam bentuk ma'zul) muncul pertama kali di Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiah. Hikayat yang disadur dari cerita Persia ini diperkirakan paling tidak ditulis tahun 1450, bahkan mungkin sudah ada sejak tahun 1380. Jadi paling tidak dalam bahasa Melayu istilah ini sudah dikenal sejak lebih dari 450 tahun yang lalu. Jauh dari baru bukan?
Meskipun sudah lama diperkenalkan, para ahli bahasa sebenarnya bertanya-tanya mengapa orang Indonesia harus meminjam istilah ini dari bahasa Arab. Tidak adakah kata Indonesia yang cocok? Ada yang menjawab "pemberhentian", ada juga yang lain memberikan usulan “makzul ialah “dipecat". Walaupun tentunya usulan ini sulit diterima karena bangsa kita sulit menerima keterusterangan dan pandai mengolah kata untuk menutupi realitas yang pahit. Seperti frasa “menyesuaikan harga” sebagai ganti frasa “menaikkan harga”, frasa “masyarakat pra-sejahtera” sebagai ganti frasa “ masyarakat miskin”. Terlebih lagi di jaman orde baru frasa ” mengamankan” sering dipakai untuk “menangkap orang-orang yang dianggap subversip atau menentang penguasa”.
Di sisi yang lain Menurut Sawali Tuhusetya seorang penyair, guru dan blogger terkenal, dari sisi kebahasaan, sesungguhnya “pemakzulan” tidak selalu bermakna upaya seseorang atau kelompok tertentu untuk memberhentikan orang atau kelompok lain dari jabatan, tetapi juga bisa terjadi karena alasan tertentu, seseorang atau kelompok yang bersangkutan meletakkan jabatannya atas inisiatif sendiri.
Di negara-negara maju dan telah memiliki tradisi demokrasi yang mapan, etika dan moral tersebut dipraktikkan, salah satunya, dalam bentuk abdikasi. Istilah abdikasi diserap dari bahasa Inggris “abdication” yang berakar dari kata “dico”; berarti mengumumkan pengunduran diri dari tahta.
Kekuasaan dan jabatan bukanlah tujuan, tetapi sekedar alat. Karena itu. jika seseorang gagal dalam menggunakan alat tersebut untuk mencapai tujuan, lebih baik jabatan itu ia tinggalkan agar untuk memberikan kesempatan kepada orang lain yang memiliki komitmen dan kemampuan untuk menggunakannya sebagai alat untuk mencapai tujuan kekuasaan, yakni untuk menciptakan kebaikan bersama (common goods).
Keterlibatan dalam sebuah kasus atau skandal, merupakan salah satu cermin kegagalan dalam mengemban amanat kekuasaan. Karena itu. seorang pejabat yang terlilit sebuah skandal, sebaiknya non aktif agar proses pemeriksaan dapat berjalan dengan lancar dan transparan. Baru setelah yang bersangkutan ditetapkan bebas dari seluruh dakwaan, maka dapat kembali lagi menjabat jabatan yang sebelumnya ia tinggalkan karena kepercayaan publik akan dapat dipulihkan.
Bentuk Pertanggungjawaban Mengundurkan diri merupakan salah satu wujud pertanggungjawaban kegagalan dan kesalahan. Pejabat-pejabat yang merasa gagal dalam mengemban kepercayaan publik atau terindikasi terlibat dalam penyelewengan kekuasaan atau skandal, mengambil jalan melepaskan jabatannya sebagai manifestasi rasa malu kepada publik.Rasa tak memiliki muka lagi itu menjadi alasan untuk tidak memperpanjang usia kekuasaan, karena telah terjadi ketidakpercayaan publik. Sebab, kepercayaan publik merupakan basis paling elementer dalam praktik berdemokrasi.
Tradisi mengundurkan diri dengan elegan menjadi budaya politik di beberapa maju. Perdana Menteri Jepang, Yasuo Fukuda mengumumkan untuk mengundurkan diri secara mendadak pada 1 September 2008 untuk memecahkan kebuntuan politik Jepang. Alasan yang sama juga dilakukan oleh PM Shlnzo Abe pada saat mengundurkan diri pada 12 September 2007.Abe kehilangan kepercayaan publik setelah didera berbagai skandal korupsi. Fukuda menyatakan dirinya tidak layak lagi memimpin Jepang. Pada Mei 2007, Menteri
Pertanian, Kehutanan, dan Perikanan Toshi-katsi Matsuoka bahkan sampai bunuh diri, karena tak kuasa menahan malu yang disebabkan oleh kebijakan koruptif yang diambilnya dipertanyakan publik.Tradisi abdikasi di Jepang sudah terjadi jauh-jauh hari sebelumnya. Pada April 1989. PM Noboru Takeshila bahkan mengundurkan diri karena korupsi yang tidak dilakukan olehnya sendiri, melainkan dilakukan oleh anggota partainya. LDP (Liberal Democratic Party).
Perdana Menteri Tanzania, Edward Lo-wassa mengundurkan diri pada Februari 2008.karena kasus korupsi yang dilakukan oleh kantornya mulai diselidiki. Ia mengambil langkah abdikasi walaupun bersamaan dengan pernyataan pengunduran diri, ia juga menyatakan bahwa ia tidak bersalah dan belum memiliki kesempatan untuk menjelaskan duduk persoalannya.Namun, karena ia memandang bahwa abdikasi merupakan solusi terbaik untuk menyelamatkan negara, maka ia melakukan langkah itu. Kepentingan jangka panjang demi negara diletakkan jauh lebih tinggi di alas kepentingan jangka pendek, baik dalam konteks pribadi maupun golongan.
Di Amerika Serikat, abdikasi juga menjadi tradisi yang cukup kuat. Pada 31 Juli 2009.Walikota Hoboken. New Jersey, Amerika Serikat, mengundurkan diri dari jabatannya, meski ia tak mengaku bersalah. Pengunduran diri juga telah dilakukan oleh Presiden Nixon pada tahun 1974 karena investigasi terhadap skandal Watergate semakin memojokkan nya.Walaupun pada umumnya mereka mengundurkan diri karena terpaksa, akan tetapi proses abdikasi dilakukan dengan elegan dan memberikan statemen yang elegan pula. Namun, di Indonesia, budaya malu dan abdikasi belum nampak tumbuh. Kalau toh ada pejabat yang terpaksa mengundurkan diri, itu pun karena desakan yang sudah tak terbendung lagi. Dan lebih dari itu. statemen yang dilontarkan tidak elegan dan menunjukkan rasa sakit hati yang seharusnya tidak dialami oleh seorang negarawan.
Statemen itu dapat ditemukan misalnya pada Presiden Soeharto pada saat mengundurkan diri pada Mei 1998 dengan mengatakan "Saya mundur dengan lila legawa . Dan akan segera mundur, mandeg ing pandita. Ora dadi presiden yo ora patheken!". Dalam statemen ini. Soeharto menekankan kata lapang dada dan kerelaan, tapi kalimat terakhirnya menunjukkan secara jelas keterpaksaan yang amat dalarn.Contoh-contoh pengunduran diri lain yang ada di negeri ini hanya sekedar upaya untuk membuat publik lupa. Setelah itu. mereka akan menjabat lagi seolah-olah tak pernah terlibat masalah. Nampaknya budaya kekuasaan di negeri ini agaknya belum memungkinkan adanya “pemakzulan” karena inisiatif sendiri. Alih-alih memakzulkan diri sendiri, jika perlu menghalalkan segala cara untuk mempertahankan kekuasaan, meski ada indikasi kuat telah menunjukkan perilaku anomali kekuasaan.
Pada situasi demikian, kita segera teringat pada ungkapan pujangga Friedrich von Schiller yang pernah dikutip Bung Hatta "zaman besar telah dilahirkan abad, tetapi zaman besar itu hanya menemukan manusia kerdil".
Kita telah melalui banyak zaman yang sering kita sebut dengan orde. Tapi, dari sekian banyak orde, hanya sedikit melahirkan manusia berjiwa besar seperti Bung Hatta yang secara elegan mengundurkan diri pada saat merasakan ada penyelewengan demokrasi pada era kepemimpinannya (bersama Soekarno).
Bung Hatta tak berbuat salah, tapi ia merasa dirinya berada di tempat yang salah. Ia malu pada rakyat yang mempercayai integritas dirinya jika tetap bersikukuh pada jabatannya (sebagai Wakil Presiden mendampingi Presiden Soekarno).
Bagi Bung Hatta, lebih baik menjadi mantan pejabat tapi terhormat, daripada menjadi pejabat tapi tidak terhormat. Suatu sikap yang kini hilang dari umumnya elite politik kita.
Kini, hasil kerja Pansus Bank Century sudah dinantikan oleh rakyat banyak. Jangan sampai kerja berbulan-bulan yang dibiayai uang rakyat itu berbelok arah atau kandas di tengah jalan. Kredibilitas mereka dipertaruhkan. Jangan biarkan rakyat yang sudah memilih mereka melalui Pemilu terkhianati dengan membelokkan arah Pansus jadi makin tidak jelas akibat intervensi dari kelompok tertentu yang merasa terusik lantaran guliran “bola liar” itu. Jika para wakil rakyat tak sanggup menunaikan tugasnya secara jujur dan fair, sudah dipastikan simpati dan empati rakyat akan berbalik sikap menjadi antipati.
Sementara itu, pihak-pihak yang diduga melakukan penyimpangan di balik kebijakan penalangan Bank Century yang konon menggunakan uang negara sebesar 6,7 trilyun itu juga tak perlu kebakaran jenggot. Biarkan para wakil rakyat terus bekerja dan tak perlu melakukan intervensi-intervensi politis yang justru akan membuat atmosfer sosial-politik di negeri ini jadi makin tak menentu. Agaknya, negeri ini belum terlalu parah keadaannya jika para pengendali kekuasaan benar-benar amanah dan kembali ke prinsip mulia siapapun yang duduk di atas sebagai negara sebagai pelayan publik sejati.
THE USE OF METAPHOR IN BARACK OBAMA’S INAUGURATION SPEECH
Abstract
This study is aimed to elaborate the uniqueness of Barack Obama’s inaugural speech when he has been sworn in as the 44th US president at 20 January 2009. This research is a (qualitative) bibliographical study. The object of the study is the use of metaphor in Barrack Obama’s speech. There are 23 sentences chosen to represent all the metaphorical sentences of Obama’s speech being the object of the study. Having analyzed the data by the perspective of George Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor, the researcher can draw a conclusion that Obama has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in convincing his people about his future plans. His remarkable speech discussing how to solve the great scale of the economic mess that now confronts the US and the common feeling of the loss of national self-confidence.
Keywords: Metaphor, Source Domain, Target Domain, and inauguration speech.
I. INTRODUCTION
One of interesting problems in language study is the use of metaphor in all walks of life. One of its mysteries is the public confusion in encountering metaphorical expression that says something that is different to what it really means. Hawkes says “Language which doesn’t mean what it says” (1980:1). This fact creates the impression that the user of metaphor looks like a liar or deceiver. When Juliet said to Romeo “The lights that shines from your eyes” she did not mean to say that from Romeo’s eyeballs radiating or shining on the chamber they stayed. When a poet says,” A poem is a bird”, he did not mean to state that the poem can flap its wings and tail. Those two instances is only part of many examples that creates the impression of metaphor as the expression full of “absurdity” and ‘falsity” (Max Black in Ortony, 1993:21).
One of the interesting studies of metaphor is the use of metaphor in political discourses. The outstanding feature of metaphor in this case lies on it uniqueness and specification that very different to other genre of writing like business, literary of arts, science and technology. Such uniqueness refers to the poetic function of literary wok to convey message or ideas to its readers (Culler, 1975:55). Culler says, “By showing what properties of language were being exploited in particular texts and how they were extended or organized” (1975:55).
Politics is a struggle for power in order to put certain political, economic and social ideas into practice. In this process, language plays a crucial role, for every political action is prepared, accompanied, influenced and played by language. This paper analyzes the discourse of political speech, namely the inaugural address of President Barack Obama. He had given the enormous domestic and global significance of the inauguration speech in times of international economic turmoil. To define what had been analyzed in this research, it had been formulated the problem of this paper: What’s the uniqueness of metaphor in Obama’s inauguration speech?
II. BASIC THEORIES AND ANALYSIS
The basic theory of this paper covers three aspects as follows: (1) The definition of metaphor (2) George Lakoff’ and Mark Johnson’s conceptual metaphor (3) The Biography of Obama. Those three aspects have a close relation to the topic discussed in this paper.
A. What is Metaphor?
In literary use, a metaphor (from the Greek: metapherin rhetorical trope) is defined as an indirect comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subjects that typically uses "is a" to join the first subjects for example: " Man is a wolf ". This is an elliptical form compared to Simile sentence Man is like a wolf. A metaphor is commonly confused with a simile, which compares two subjects using "like" or "as". An example of a simile: "He was as sly as a fox." In the simplest case, a metaphor takes the form: "The first subject is a second subject." Edi Subroto (1986:45) said that a metaphorical expression can be categorized as metaphor if it can give a new enjoyment in reading language expression, kicking out monotony and enliven inanimate object, and actualizing something that which actually crippled or paralyzed.
In the development of theories of metaphor there are several domestic and foreign linguists who had tried to describe their complex conception about metaphor. They are: Rachmad Djoko Pradopo(1987), Edi Subroto(1991), Herman Waluyo(1991), Aminuddin(1995), Stephen Ullmann (1972), Andrew Orthony(1993),and Wellek (1993). These conceptions will be elaborated one by one:
Pradopo (1987:66) explains that categorically metaphor consists of two terms that is main term or tenor (principal term) and the second term or vehicle (secondary term). The main term or tenor told about the compared entities whereas the second term or vehicle told about the comparison or the things compared. Then it was said that metaphor sees things by the medium of other entities. This metaphor explains something with the same result which actually has different meaning.
Edi Subroto (1995:38) explains that metaphor is created particularly based on the similarity of two referents. The first referent is called tenor and the second one is called vehicle. The similarity of both referents is the basic builder of metaphor creation.
According to Edi Subroto one of important factor in the affectivity of metaphor is the distance between tenor and vehicle. If the distance of both of them is very close in their similarity level, the metaphor is less expressive, less effective. On the contrary, if the similarity level of both elements is not so real, the metaphor has expressive power. The metaphor like “black wolf” to depict “night shadow” like what has Arthur Rimbaud said in his poem is the example of effective and expressive metaphor (Edi Subroto, 1995:39).
According to Herman Waluyo (1991:84), metaphor is an insight or approach towards object through direct or indirect comparison. Aminuddin (1995:304), in his Stilistika explained that metaphor is:
One of the form of figurative language which created and re-created through comparison and the transfer of semantic features via direct or indirect comparison. The Indonesian metaphor of “Aku ini binatang jalang”( I am the untamed animal) for example, is a form of metaphor which used direct comparison but in the metaphor of “Jam mengerdip” something is compared to the blinking as indirect nature. Viewed to its function, the use of metaphor is functioned to enrich the nature of imagery description and the picturing of meaning of an elaboration.
Ullmann said that the subjects of metaphor by telling the things that we compared to. In his Semantic an Introduction to the science of meaning explained about both things by giving term of tenor and vehicle, whereas the common feature that they have has formed the ground of metaphor. This had been stated in these following sentences:
The basic structure of metaphor is very simple. There are two terms present: the thing we are talking about and that to which we are comparing it. In Richard’s terminology, the former is the tenor, the later the vehicle, whereas the feature or features they have in common from the ground of the metaphor (Ullman, 1972:213).
It means that the basic structure of metaphor is very simple. There are two things that we are talking about the things we talk and the things we compared to. The first term of Richard from the early start is tenor (direction/objectives) and the latest is vehicle. This remains us to the idiosyncrasies of daily lexicon which form the ground of metaphor.
In the view of Andrew Ortony (1993:2), in his book entitled Metaphor and Thought:
It seems preferable, however, to attempt to relate two alternative approaches to metaphor - metaphor as an essential characteristic of the creativity of language; and metaphor as deviant and parasitic upon normal usage - to a more fundamental and pervasive difference of opinion about the relationship between language and the world.
It means that, however, it is better to relate two alternatives of approach in metaphor – metaphor as the main character from language creativity; and metaphor as a deviation and parasitic from the normal language toward deep fundamental difference from the opinion of the relationship between language and the world.
Furthermore Rene Wellek (1993:235) explained that metaphor compared two world and conveying theme through one idiom to other idiom as the works of Shakespeare (raging sea, the wild storm in the meadow, the gloomy lake).
In general, it can be concluded that what had been said by the above linguistic experts had enrich our knowledge about the theories of metaphor started from the tenor and vehicle explained by I.A Richard (1936). Even though sometimes using different terminology outstanding linguists like Pradopo, Edi Subroto, Waluyo, Aminnuddin,Wellek and Ullmann had just given an emphasis to the theory of Richard whereas Andrew Ortony had added by his viewpoints which insisted on the inconsistencies between “the two terms” in metaphor called as tension.
B. CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR
It is true that all of us speak in metaphors whether we realize it or not. In Metaphors We Live By by George Lakoff, a linguist, and Mark Johnson, a philosopher, suggest that metaphors not only make our thoughts more vivid and interesting but that they actually structure our perceptions and understanding. Thinking of marriage as a “contract agreement,” for example, leads to one set of expectations, while thinking of it as ‘team play”, “a negotiated settlement,” ‘Russian roulette,” “an indissoluble merger,” or “a religious sacrament” will carry different sets of expectations. When a government thinks of its enemies as ‘turkeys” or “clowns” it does not take them as serious threats, but if they said that they are “pawns” in the hands of the communists, they will be taken seriously indeed. In Metaphors We Live By has led many readers to a new recognition of how profoundly metaphors not only shape our view of life in the present but set up the expectations that determine what life will be for us in the future (1980:13).
Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish- a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action. For this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly without metaphor. We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.
The concepts that govern our thought are not just matter of the intellect. They also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most common details. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world and how we relate to other people. Our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities. If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we thinks what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor.
The conceptual system used by mankind in wherever society strongly influenced our style and style of thinking and doing is metaphorical. The non-metaphorical thinking is only possible if we discuss merely physical realities. The greater the level of abstraction made by people, the greater of the metaphorical layers needed to state the result of human thinking.
Many people ignored these for several reasons. One of them is the reason that few form of metaphor is considered “dead” and has unknown origin. The other reason is that we do not know what happen on our conceptual system in our thinking. (1993:224).
The clearer depiction of the view that most of our conceptual system is metaphorical can be seen in the instances of conceptual metaphor by Lakoff and Turner (1989:3-4) that is given then name of the metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. In this metaphor the mental domain) “Journey” as the source domain is compared to mental domain of “Life” as the target domain. The conceptual mapping between the concepts is:
LIFE IS A JOURNEY.
- The person leading a life is a traveler.
- His purposes are destinations.
- The means fro achieving purposes are routes.
- Difficulties in life are impediments to travel
- Counselors are guides.
- Progress is the distance traveled.
- Counselors are guides.
- Progress is the distance traveled
- Things you gauge your progress by are the landmarks.
- Material resources and talents are provisions.
- The conception of the metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY can be applied into other examples like what have been said by (in Ortony 1993:206) like the metaphor of LOVE IS A JOURNEY
- Our relationship has hit a dead-end street.
- We can’t turn back now.
- We’re at the crossroads.
- The relationship isn’t going anywhere.
- We’re spinning our wheels.
- Our relationship is off the track.
It should be understood that the above metaphorical conception is not the only form, but there are hundreds and thousands form and mental domain mapping which compared on mental domain to other mental domain like what had been elaborate by Lakoff in the metaphor of LIFE IS A JOURNEY, CHANGE IS MOTION, CAUSES ARE FORCES, SEEING IS KNOWING, THINKING AS BODY MOVEMENT, TIME PASSING IS A MOVEMENT OVER A LANDSCAPE etc.
From this, the researcher can defined that according to George Lakoff metaphor is the most important conceptual construction in the development of human thinking history. The conceptual system which used daily in each and every society will influence our ways of thinking and doing which metaphorical in nature.
C. THE BIOGRAPHY OF OBAMA
Barack Hussein Obama II (August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office, as well as the first president born in Hawaii. Obama previously served as the junior United States Senator from Illinois from January 2005 until he resigned after his election to the presidency in November 2008.
Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004.
Obama served three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004. Following an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 2000, he ran for United States Senate in 2004. During the campaign, several events brought him to national attention, such as his victory in the March 2004 Democratic primary election for the United States Senator from Illinois as well as his prime-time televised keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in November 2004.
Obama began his run for the presidency in February 2007. After a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 general election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. On October 9, 2009, he was awarded the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize.
III. ANALYSIS
The following paragraphs are the result of analysis toward 23 sentences which contain metaphor in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech text. These sentences had been analyzed by using George Lakoff’s theory of conceptual Metaphor. In this analysis it can be found eight most outstanding conceptual mapping of metaphor:
NO THE NAMES OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR
1 CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT
2 STATES ARE LOCATIONS
3 STATES IS A MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE
4 POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR
5 ACTIONS ARE TRANSFER
6 POLITICS IS A JOURNEY
7 MORE IS UP ; LESS IS DOWN
8 ACHIEVING A PURPOSE IS AGRICULTURE
1. CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT
In general there are two metaphorical data in Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT:
(1) Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace.
(2) The question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works - whether it helps families find jobs at a decent wage, care they can afford, a retirement that is dignified. Where the answer is yes, we intend to move forward. Where the answer is no, programs will end.
In the metaphorical expression (1) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “rising tides” and “still waters” whereas the target domain is the words “prosperity” and “peace”. As it can be seen on the phrases of “rising tides of prosperity” and “the still waters of peace” that in here, movement-either self-propelled or otherwise-can involve a change of location or stationary (e.g. shaking). If it involves a change of location, it can be associated with the words like: forward, backward, upward, or downward directions. So, the rising tide of prosperity can be constructed as the state of prosperity has become more than before, while peace has not undergone change (still). Besides, the movements here can also be specified as FLOW OF NATURAL FORCE (“the rising tides”) and SUBSTANCE (“still waters”).
In the metaphorical expression (2) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “We intend to move forward” and “programs will end” whereas the target domain is the ideas of US government plan to provide job for jobseekers and better social warranty.
In both metaphorical expression Obama wants to tell us that all presidents of America since George Washington until his period had taken the presidential oath and strived hard to develop America. All of their effort has the aim of raising economic development and prosperity. All of these can be achieved if there is a good political support from his people.
2. STATES ARE LOCATIONS
There is only one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of STATES ARE LOCATIONS:
(3) That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred.
(4) Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms.
In the metaphorical expression (3) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “in the midst of” and “Our nation is at war against a far-reaching” whereas the target domain is “crisis” and “network of violence and hatred”. By saying these the metaphorical expressions gave an impression that the states of American crisis located on certain position. A position which located in the middle position; not on the edge or peripheral position. It’s what the cognitive linguists had stated as “Spatial metaphor”. Metaphorical expressions which showing a position of object in the frame of “space” or spatial one. American citizens are facing the crisis and also have the feeling of fear of the long distance threat of international terrorist which they think spreading violence and hatred every place. By stating this the president acknowledges the ongoing war on terror; however, he makes no clear reference to the “terrorist organization” of al-Qaeda.
In the metaphorical expression (4) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase “Amidst gathering clouds and “Raging storm” whereas the target domain is “The oaths” or “The presidential oath of American president”. The metaphorical expression in the phrase of “Oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms” can be elaborated as ‘Amidst’ itself means ‘In the middle of something, especially something causing excitement or fear’. So, the ‘gathering clouds and the raging storms’ metaphorically refer to the state of strong feeling of sadness, anxiety by American people about the bad socio- economic of recent time.
3. STATES IS A MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE
It can be seen that there is merely one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of STATES IS A MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE:
(5) These are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. Less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land - a nagging fear that America's decline is inevitable, that the next generation must lower its sights.
In the metaphorical expression (5) the part which plays role as source domain is the phrase “Across our land” whereas the target domain is “A sapping confidence”. According to Lakoff’s conceptual metaphor the manner of action is manner of motion towards a landscape. Forces which affecting action are forces affecting motion. Progress made is distance traveled or distance from goal.
The phrase “A sapping of confidence across our land” gave us impression that confidence as an abstract thing treated as a concrete thing which can come across over a land. In this metaphor Obama wants to tell us that American people are now facing the fear of weakening confident in their psychological condition spreading all over the country. A deep rooted fear about the unavoidable decline of American economy and hegemony. In this part Obama wants to describe the current condition of America and his plan for big improvement towards the country.
4. POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR
It can be found that there are two metaphorical data in Barrack Osama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR:
(6) Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred.
In the metaphorical expression (6) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase “At war” and “against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred” whereas the target domain is “our nation“. In this quotation it can be found the talk of a country’s political condition in terms of fight or war. In the domain of fight or war we can actually be a winner or a loser. We see how a politician in political arena faces other politician as an opponent. He attacks other politician’s position and he defends his own. Possibly he will gain and lose ground. He plans and uses strategies. If he finds a position indefensible, he can abandon it and take a new line of attack. Many of the things a politician does in politics are partially structured by the concept of war. Though there is no physical battle, there is a verbal battle, and the structure of an argument--attack, defense, counter-attack, etc. ---reflects this.
It can be clearly seen that in the POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR metaphor that expressions from the vocabulary of war or fight, e.g., attack a position, indefensible, strategy, new line of attack, win, gain ground, etc., form a systematic way of talking about the battling aspects of the world of politics. It is no accident that these expressions mean what they mean when we use them to talk about politics. A portion of the conceptual network of battle partially characterizes the concept of politics, and the language follows suit. Since metaphorical expressions in our language are tied to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way, we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of metaphorical concepts and to gain an understanding of the metaphorical nature of our activities.
On above quotation we can set out that Barrack Obama is using the concept of FIGHT or WAR to conceptualize politics in terms of POLITICS IS A FIGHT/WAR metaphor. American people are at war against the dangerous group which Obama called as the global terrorism networking.
(5) ACTIONS ARE TRANSFER
In general there is one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of ACTIONS ARE TRANSFER
(7) The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness.
In the metaphorical expression (7) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “that precious gift, that noble idea” whereas the target domain is “to carry forward and “passed”. This metaphor can be analyzed as the speaker is a certain generation. They do their action by putting the ideas (treated as objects) into words (containers) and send them (along a conduit) to another generation as a bearer who takes the idea/objects out of the word/containers.
This is the idea of Reddy, the linguist who had conducted much time for experimentation on metaphor. He has made analysis on documents with more than a hundred types of expressions in English. He said that in this case actions are conceptualized as objects transferred from an agent to a patient, as when one gives someone a kick or a punch. We know (as part of target domain knowledge) that an action does not exist after it occurs. In the source domain, where there is a giving, the recipient possesses the object given after the giving. But this cannot be mapped onto the target domain since the inherent structure of the target domain says that no such object exists after the action is over.
(6) POLITICS IS A JOURNEY
There are two metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of POLITICS IS A JOURNEY:
(8) This is the journey we continue today. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth.
(9) Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted - for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things - some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labour, which have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom.
In the metaphorical expression (8) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “This is the journey we continue today” whereas the target domain is American Political life. By saying the sentence of “This is the journey we continue today” gave an impression that the American people are the traveler having a journey to certain destination.
In the metaphorical expression (9) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase “Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted” whereas the target domain is also American political life.
It can be seen from both quotation that the principle for under standing the domain of politics can be applied in terms of the domain of journeys. The principle can be stated informally as a metaphorical scenario: The people involve in political life are travelers on a journey together, with their common life goals seen as destinations to be reached. The political activities and relation is their vehicle, and it allows them to pursue those common goals together. The relationship is seen as fulfilling its purpose as long as it allows them to make progress toward their common goals. The journey isn’t easy. There are impediments, and there are places (crossroads) where a policies or a political decision has to be made about which direction to go in and whether to keep traveling together.
The metaphor involves understanding one domain of politics in terms of a very different domain of journeys. More technically, the metaphor can be understood as a mapping (in the mathematical sense) from a source domain (in this case, journeys) to a target domain (in this case, politics). The mapping is tightly structured. There are ontological correspondences, according to which entities in the domain of politics (e.g., the political activists/politicians, their common goals, their difficulties, the political activities, etc.) correspond systematically to entities in the domain of a journey (the travelers, the vehicle, destinations, etc.).
(7) MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN
In general there is one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT:
(10) Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered.
In the metaphorical expression (10) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “badly weakened”, “have been lost”, and “shuttered” whereas the target domain is “economy, homes, jobs, and business.”. By saying the sentences of “Our economy is badly weakened, and homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered” Obama want to indicates a physical basis of American current economic condition that if there is a decrease in physical objects to a container or pile like the weaken economic condition like homes have been lost, jobs shed and businesses shuttered. It means the economic level goes down. But otherwise if there is an increase in the substance or physical object to a container, the level goes up.
The elaboration given in the contemporary theory is that the MORE IS UP metaphor is grounded in experience-in the common experiences of pouring more fluid into a container and seeing the level go up, or adding more things to a pile and seeing the pile get higher. These are thoroughly pervasive experiences; we experience them every day of our lives. They are experiences with a structure-a correspondence between the conceptual domain of quantity and the conceptual domain of verticality: MORE corresponds in such experiences to UP and LESS corresponds to DOWN. These correspondences in real experience form the basis for the correspondence in the metaphorical cases, which go beyond the cases in real experience: in Prices rose there is no correspondence in real experience between quantity and verticality, but understanding quantity in terms of verticality makes sense because of the existence of a regular correspondence in so many other cases.
8. ACHIEVING A PURPOSE IS AGRICULTURE
It can be analyzed that there is one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of ACHIEVING A PURPOSE IS AGRICULTURE:
(11) To those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society's ills on the West - know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy.
In the metaphorical expression (11) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “seek to sow” whereas the target domain is “the conflict”. This quotation told us that the principle for under standing the domain of agriculture can be applied in terms of the domain of achieving a purpose. This has a unique metaphorical story line: The people who want to achieve a common goal are farming the land together, with their common life purpose seen as the farming crops as the result of their effort.
III. CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION
Having analyzed the data, the researcher can draw the conclusion that Obama has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in convincing his people about his future plans. His remarkable speech discussing how to solve the great scale of the economic mess that now confronts the US and the common feeling of the loss of national self-confidence. These problems not so many people are seriously questioning. He has used the domain of “Movement” in explaining “Change”, the domain of “Location” over “States”, the domain of “Motion Over a Landscape” used to elaborate “States”, the domain of “War/Fight” had been used to describe “Politics”, the domain of “Transfer” in explaining “Actions”, the domain of “Journey” in describing “Politics” and the domain of “Agriculture” had been used in describing “Achieving a Purpose”.
Finally, the researcher suggest that there are many opportunities and facets to make a lingual research about this study particularly a research on the metaphorical expression of world’s famous speech like Barack Obama’s inauguration speech. This work requires deeper and broader observation, interpretation and analysis. The study towards this most outstanding figurative language offers deeper interpretation about the linguistic unique feature of formal speech. This suggestion is aimed to all language researcher and the students of English department , particularly the program of English linguistics.
BIBILIOGRAPHY
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Ortony, Andrew. (Ed). 1993. Metaphor & Thought. London: Cambrigde University Press.
Saeed,J. 1997. Semantics. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers.
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Ullmann, Stephen. 1997. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
This study is aimed to elaborate the uniqueness of Barack Obama’s inaugural speech when he has been sworn in as the 44th US president at 20 January 2009. This research is a (qualitative) bibliographical study. The object of the study is the use of metaphor in Barrack Obama’s speech. There are 23 sentences chosen to represent all the metaphorical sentences of Obama’s speech being the object of the study. Having analyzed the data by the perspective of George Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor, the researcher can draw a conclusion that Obama has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in convincing his people about his future plans. His remarkable speech discussing how to solve the great scale of the economic mess that now confronts the US and the common feeling of the loss of national self-confidence.
Keywords: Metaphor, Source Domain, Target Domain, and inauguration speech.
I. INTRODUCTION
One of interesting problems in language study is the use of metaphor in all walks of life. One of its mysteries is the public confusion in encountering metaphorical expression that says something that is different to what it really means. Hawkes says “Language which doesn’t mean what it says” (1980:1). This fact creates the impression that the user of metaphor looks like a liar or deceiver. When Juliet said to Romeo “The lights that shines from your eyes” she did not mean to say that from Romeo’s eyeballs radiating or shining on the chamber they stayed. When a poet says,” A poem is a bird”, he did not mean to state that the poem can flap its wings and tail. Those two instances is only part of many examples that creates the impression of metaphor as the expression full of “absurdity” and ‘falsity” (Max Black in Ortony, 1993:21).
One of the interesting studies of metaphor is the use of metaphor in political discourses. The outstanding feature of metaphor in this case lies on it uniqueness and specification that very different to other genre of writing like business, literary of arts, science and technology. Such uniqueness refers to the poetic function of literary wok to convey message or ideas to its readers (Culler, 1975:55). Culler says, “By showing what properties of language were being exploited in particular texts and how they were extended or organized” (1975:55).
Politics is a struggle for power in order to put certain political, economic and social ideas into practice. In this process, language plays a crucial role, for every political action is prepared, accompanied, influenced and played by language. This paper analyzes the discourse of political speech, namely the inaugural address of President Barack Obama. He had given the enormous domestic and global significance of the inauguration speech in times of international economic turmoil. To define what had been analyzed in this research, it had been formulated the problem of this paper: What’s the uniqueness of metaphor in Obama’s inauguration speech?
II. BASIC THEORIES AND ANALYSIS
The basic theory of this paper covers three aspects as follows: (1) The definition of metaphor (2) George Lakoff’ and Mark Johnson’s conceptual metaphor (3) The Biography of Obama. Those three aspects have a close relation to the topic discussed in this paper.
A. What is Metaphor?
In literary use, a metaphor (from the Greek: metapherin rhetorical trope) is defined as an indirect comparison between two or more seemingly unrelated subjects that typically uses "is a" to join the first subjects for example: " Man is a wolf ". This is an elliptical form compared to Simile sentence Man is like a wolf. A metaphor is commonly confused with a simile, which compares two subjects using "like" or "as". An example of a simile: "He was as sly as a fox." In the simplest case, a metaphor takes the form: "The first subject is a second subject." Edi Subroto (1986:45) said that a metaphorical expression can be categorized as metaphor if it can give a new enjoyment in reading language expression, kicking out monotony and enliven inanimate object, and actualizing something that which actually crippled or paralyzed.
In the development of theories of metaphor there are several domestic and foreign linguists who had tried to describe their complex conception about metaphor. They are: Rachmad Djoko Pradopo(1987), Edi Subroto(1991), Herman Waluyo(1991), Aminuddin(1995), Stephen Ullmann (1972), Andrew Orthony(1993),and Wellek (1993). These conceptions will be elaborated one by one:
Pradopo (1987:66) explains that categorically metaphor consists of two terms that is main term or tenor (principal term) and the second term or vehicle (secondary term). The main term or tenor told about the compared entities whereas the second term or vehicle told about the comparison or the things compared. Then it was said that metaphor sees things by the medium of other entities. This metaphor explains something with the same result which actually has different meaning.
Edi Subroto (1995:38) explains that metaphor is created particularly based on the similarity of two referents. The first referent is called tenor and the second one is called vehicle. The similarity of both referents is the basic builder of metaphor creation.
According to Edi Subroto one of important factor in the affectivity of metaphor is the distance between tenor and vehicle. If the distance of both of them is very close in their similarity level, the metaphor is less expressive, less effective. On the contrary, if the similarity level of both elements is not so real, the metaphor has expressive power. The metaphor like “black wolf” to depict “night shadow” like what has Arthur Rimbaud said in his poem is the example of effective and expressive metaphor (Edi Subroto, 1995:39).
According to Herman Waluyo (1991:84), metaphor is an insight or approach towards object through direct or indirect comparison. Aminuddin (1995:304), in his Stilistika explained that metaphor is:
One of the form of figurative language which created and re-created through comparison and the transfer of semantic features via direct or indirect comparison. The Indonesian metaphor of “Aku ini binatang jalang”( I am the untamed animal) for example, is a form of metaphor which used direct comparison but in the metaphor of “Jam mengerdip” something is compared to the blinking as indirect nature. Viewed to its function, the use of metaphor is functioned to enrich the nature of imagery description and the picturing of meaning of an elaboration.
Ullmann said that the subjects of metaphor by telling the things that we compared to. In his Semantic an Introduction to the science of meaning explained about both things by giving term of tenor and vehicle, whereas the common feature that they have has formed the ground of metaphor. This had been stated in these following sentences:
The basic structure of metaphor is very simple. There are two terms present: the thing we are talking about and that to which we are comparing it. In Richard’s terminology, the former is the tenor, the later the vehicle, whereas the feature or features they have in common from the ground of the metaphor (Ullman, 1972:213).
It means that the basic structure of metaphor is very simple. There are two things that we are talking about the things we talk and the things we compared to. The first term of Richard from the early start is tenor (direction/objectives) and the latest is vehicle. This remains us to the idiosyncrasies of daily lexicon which form the ground of metaphor.
In the view of Andrew Ortony (1993:2), in his book entitled Metaphor and Thought:
It seems preferable, however, to attempt to relate two alternative approaches to metaphor - metaphor as an essential characteristic of the creativity of language; and metaphor as deviant and parasitic upon normal usage - to a more fundamental and pervasive difference of opinion about the relationship between language and the world.
It means that, however, it is better to relate two alternatives of approach in metaphor – metaphor as the main character from language creativity; and metaphor as a deviation and parasitic from the normal language toward deep fundamental difference from the opinion of the relationship between language and the world.
Furthermore Rene Wellek (1993:235) explained that metaphor compared two world and conveying theme through one idiom to other idiom as the works of Shakespeare (raging sea, the wild storm in the meadow, the gloomy lake).
In general, it can be concluded that what had been said by the above linguistic experts had enrich our knowledge about the theories of metaphor started from the tenor and vehicle explained by I.A Richard (1936). Even though sometimes using different terminology outstanding linguists like Pradopo, Edi Subroto, Waluyo, Aminnuddin,Wellek and Ullmann had just given an emphasis to the theory of Richard whereas Andrew Ortony had added by his viewpoints which insisted on the inconsistencies between “the two terms” in metaphor called as tension.
B. CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR
It is true that all of us speak in metaphors whether we realize it or not. In Metaphors We Live By by George Lakoff, a linguist, and Mark Johnson, a philosopher, suggest that metaphors not only make our thoughts more vivid and interesting but that they actually structure our perceptions and understanding. Thinking of marriage as a “contract agreement,” for example, leads to one set of expectations, while thinking of it as ‘team play”, “a negotiated settlement,” ‘Russian roulette,” “an indissoluble merger,” or “a religious sacrament” will carry different sets of expectations. When a government thinks of its enemies as ‘turkeys” or “clowns” it does not take them as serious threats, but if they said that they are “pawns” in the hands of the communists, they will be taken seriously indeed. In Metaphors We Live By has led many readers to a new recognition of how profoundly metaphors not only shape our view of life in the present but set up the expectations that determine what life will be for us in the future (1980:13).
Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish- a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action. For this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly without metaphor. We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.
The concepts that govern our thought are not just matter of the intellect. They also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most common details. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world and how we relate to other people. Our conceptual system thus plays a central role in defining our everyday realities. If we are right in suggesting that our conceptual system is largely metaphorical, then the way we thinks what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor.
The conceptual system used by mankind in wherever society strongly influenced our style and style of thinking and doing is metaphorical. The non-metaphorical thinking is only possible if we discuss merely physical realities. The greater the level of abstraction made by people, the greater of the metaphorical layers needed to state the result of human thinking.
Many people ignored these for several reasons. One of them is the reason that few form of metaphor is considered “dead” and has unknown origin. The other reason is that we do not know what happen on our conceptual system in our thinking. (1993:224).
The clearer depiction of the view that most of our conceptual system is metaphorical can be seen in the instances of conceptual metaphor by Lakoff and Turner (1989:3-4) that is given then name of the metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. In this metaphor the mental domain) “Journey” as the source domain is compared to mental domain of “Life” as the target domain. The conceptual mapping between the concepts is:
LIFE IS A JOURNEY.
- The person leading a life is a traveler.
- His purposes are destinations.
- The means fro achieving purposes are routes.
- Difficulties in life are impediments to travel
- Counselors are guides.
- Progress is the distance traveled.
- Counselors are guides.
- Progress is the distance traveled
- Things you gauge your progress by are the landmarks.
- Material resources and talents are provisions.
- The conception of the metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY can be applied into other examples like what have been said by (in Ortony 1993:206) like the metaphor of LOVE IS A JOURNEY
- Our relationship has hit a dead-end street.
- We can’t turn back now.
- We’re at the crossroads.
- The relationship isn’t going anywhere.
- We’re spinning our wheels.
- Our relationship is off the track.
It should be understood that the above metaphorical conception is not the only form, but there are hundreds and thousands form and mental domain mapping which compared on mental domain to other mental domain like what had been elaborate by Lakoff in the metaphor of LIFE IS A JOURNEY, CHANGE IS MOTION, CAUSES ARE FORCES, SEEING IS KNOWING, THINKING AS BODY MOVEMENT, TIME PASSING IS A MOVEMENT OVER A LANDSCAPE etc.
From this, the researcher can defined that according to George Lakoff metaphor is the most important conceptual construction in the development of human thinking history. The conceptual system which used daily in each and every society will influence our ways of thinking and doing which metaphorical in nature.
C. THE BIOGRAPHY OF OBAMA
Barack Hussein Obama II (August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office, as well as the first president born in Hawaii. Obama previously served as the junior United States Senator from Illinois from January 2005 until he resigned after his election to the presidency in November 2008.
Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004.
Obama served three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004. Following an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in 2000, he ran for United States Senate in 2004. During the campaign, several events brought him to national attention, such as his victory in the March 2004 Democratic primary election for the United States Senator from Illinois as well as his prime-time televised keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in November 2004.
Obama began his run for the presidency in February 2007. After a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 general election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. On October 9, 2009, he was awarded the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize.
III. ANALYSIS
The following paragraphs are the result of analysis toward 23 sentences which contain metaphor in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech text. These sentences had been analyzed by using George Lakoff’s theory of conceptual Metaphor. In this analysis it can be found eight most outstanding conceptual mapping of metaphor:
NO THE NAMES OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR
1 CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT
2 STATES ARE LOCATIONS
3 STATES IS A MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE
4 POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR
5 ACTIONS ARE TRANSFER
6 POLITICS IS A JOURNEY
7 MORE IS UP ; LESS IS DOWN
8 ACHIEVING A PURPOSE IS AGRICULTURE
1. CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT
In general there are two metaphorical data in Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT:
(1) Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace.
(2) The question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works - whether it helps families find jobs at a decent wage, care they can afford, a retirement that is dignified. Where the answer is yes, we intend to move forward. Where the answer is no, programs will end.
In the metaphorical expression (1) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “rising tides” and “still waters” whereas the target domain is the words “prosperity” and “peace”. As it can be seen on the phrases of “rising tides of prosperity” and “the still waters of peace” that in here, movement-either self-propelled or otherwise-can involve a change of location or stationary (e.g. shaking). If it involves a change of location, it can be associated with the words like: forward, backward, upward, or downward directions. So, the rising tide of prosperity can be constructed as the state of prosperity has become more than before, while peace has not undergone change (still). Besides, the movements here can also be specified as FLOW OF NATURAL FORCE (“the rising tides”) and SUBSTANCE (“still waters”).
In the metaphorical expression (2) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “We intend to move forward” and “programs will end” whereas the target domain is the ideas of US government plan to provide job for jobseekers and better social warranty.
In both metaphorical expression Obama wants to tell us that all presidents of America since George Washington until his period had taken the presidential oath and strived hard to develop America. All of their effort has the aim of raising economic development and prosperity. All of these can be achieved if there is a good political support from his people.
2. STATES ARE LOCATIONS
There is only one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of STATES ARE LOCATIONS:
(3) That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred.
(4) Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms.
In the metaphorical expression (3) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “in the midst of” and “Our nation is at war against a far-reaching” whereas the target domain is “crisis” and “network of violence and hatred”. By saying these the metaphorical expressions gave an impression that the states of American crisis located on certain position. A position which located in the middle position; not on the edge or peripheral position. It’s what the cognitive linguists had stated as “Spatial metaphor”. Metaphorical expressions which showing a position of object in the frame of “space” or spatial one. American citizens are facing the crisis and also have the feeling of fear of the long distance threat of international terrorist which they think spreading violence and hatred every place. By stating this the president acknowledges the ongoing war on terror; however, he makes no clear reference to the “terrorist organization” of al-Qaeda.
In the metaphorical expression (4) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase “Amidst gathering clouds and “Raging storm” whereas the target domain is “The oaths” or “The presidential oath of American president”. The metaphorical expression in the phrase of “Oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms” can be elaborated as ‘Amidst’ itself means ‘In the middle of something, especially something causing excitement or fear’. So, the ‘gathering clouds and the raging storms’ metaphorically refer to the state of strong feeling of sadness, anxiety by American people about the bad socio- economic of recent time.
3. STATES IS A MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE
It can be seen that there is merely one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of STATES IS A MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE:
(5) These are the indicators of crisis, subject to data and statistics. Less measurable but no less profound is a sapping of confidence across our land - a nagging fear that America's decline is inevitable, that the next generation must lower its sights.
In the metaphorical expression (5) the part which plays role as source domain is the phrase “Across our land” whereas the target domain is “A sapping confidence”. According to Lakoff’s conceptual metaphor the manner of action is manner of motion towards a landscape. Forces which affecting action are forces affecting motion. Progress made is distance traveled or distance from goal.
The phrase “A sapping of confidence across our land” gave us impression that confidence as an abstract thing treated as a concrete thing which can come across over a land. In this metaphor Obama wants to tell us that American people are now facing the fear of weakening confident in their psychological condition spreading all over the country. A deep rooted fear about the unavoidable decline of American economy and hegemony. In this part Obama wants to describe the current condition of America and his plan for big improvement towards the country.
4. POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR
It can be found that there are two metaphorical data in Barrack Osama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR:
(6) Our nation is at war, against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred.
In the metaphorical expression (6) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase “At war” and “against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred” whereas the target domain is “our nation“. In this quotation it can be found the talk of a country’s political condition in terms of fight or war. In the domain of fight or war we can actually be a winner or a loser. We see how a politician in political arena faces other politician as an opponent. He attacks other politician’s position and he defends his own. Possibly he will gain and lose ground. He plans and uses strategies. If he finds a position indefensible, he can abandon it and take a new line of attack. Many of the things a politician does in politics are partially structured by the concept of war. Though there is no physical battle, there is a verbal battle, and the structure of an argument--attack, defense, counter-attack, etc. ---reflects this.
It can be clearly seen that in the POLITICS IS FIGHT/WAR metaphor that expressions from the vocabulary of war or fight, e.g., attack a position, indefensible, strategy, new line of attack, win, gain ground, etc., form a systematic way of talking about the battling aspects of the world of politics. It is no accident that these expressions mean what they mean when we use them to talk about politics. A portion of the conceptual network of battle partially characterizes the concept of politics, and the language follows suit. Since metaphorical expressions in our language are tied to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way, we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of metaphorical concepts and to gain an understanding of the metaphorical nature of our activities.
On above quotation we can set out that Barrack Obama is using the concept of FIGHT or WAR to conceptualize politics in terms of POLITICS IS A FIGHT/WAR metaphor. American people are at war against the dangerous group which Obama called as the global terrorism networking.
(5) ACTIONS ARE TRANSFER
In general there is one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of ACTIONS ARE TRANSFER
(7) The time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness.
In the metaphorical expression (7) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “that precious gift, that noble idea” whereas the target domain is “to carry forward and “passed”. This metaphor can be analyzed as the speaker is a certain generation. They do their action by putting the ideas (treated as objects) into words (containers) and send them (along a conduit) to another generation as a bearer who takes the idea/objects out of the word/containers.
This is the idea of Reddy, the linguist who had conducted much time for experimentation on metaphor. He has made analysis on documents with more than a hundred types of expressions in English. He said that in this case actions are conceptualized as objects transferred from an agent to a patient, as when one gives someone a kick or a punch. We know (as part of target domain knowledge) that an action does not exist after it occurs. In the source domain, where there is a giving, the recipient possesses the object given after the giving. But this cannot be mapped onto the target domain since the inherent structure of the target domain says that no such object exists after the action is over.
(6) POLITICS IS A JOURNEY
There are two metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of POLITICS IS A JOURNEY:
(8) This is the journey we continue today. We remain the most prosperous, powerful nation on Earth.
(9) Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted - for those who prefer leisure over work, or seek only the pleasures of riches and fame. Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things - some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labour, which have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom.
In the metaphorical expression (8) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “This is the journey we continue today” whereas the target domain is American Political life. By saying the sentence of “This is the journey we continue today” gave an impression that the American people are the traveler having a journey to certain destination.
In the metaphorical expression (9) the part which conducts as source domain is the phrase “Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted” whereas the target domain is also American political life.
It can be seen from both quotation that the principle for under standing the domain of politics can be applied in terms of the domain of journeys. The principle can be stated informally as a metaphorical scenario: The people involve in political life are travelers on a journey together, with their common life goals seen as destinations to be reached. The political activities and relation is their vehicle, and it allows them to pursue those common goals together. The relationship is seen as fulfilling its purpose as long as it allows them to make progress toward their common goals. The journey isn’t easy. There are impediments, and there are places (crossroads) where a policies or a political decision has to be made about which direction to go in and whether to keep traveling together.
The metaphor involves understanding one domain of politics in terms of a very different domain of journeys. More technically, the metaphor can be understood as a mapping (in the mathematical sense) from a source domain (in this case, journeys) to a target domain (in this case, politics). The mapping is tightly structured. There are ontological correspondences, according to which entities in the domain of politics (e.g., the political activists/politicians, their common goals, their difficulties, the political activities, etc.) correspond systematically to entities in the domain of a journey (the travelers, the vehicle, destinations, etc.).
(7) MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN
In general there is one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of CHANGE ARE MOVEMENT:
(10) Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered.
In the metaphorical expression (10) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “badly weakened”, “have been lost”, and “shuttered” whereas the target domain is “economy, homes, jobs, and business.”. By saying the sentences of “Our economy is badly weakened, and homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered” Obama want to indicates a physical basis of American current economic condition that if there is a decrease in physical objects to a container or pile like the weaken economic condition like homes have been lost, jobs shed and businesses shuttered. It means the economic level goes down. But otherwise if there is an increase in the substance or physical object to a container, the level goes up.
The elaboration given in the contemporary theory is that the MORE IS UP metaphor is grounded in experience-in the common experiences of pouring more fluid into a container and seeing the level go up, or adding more things to a pile and seeing the pile get higher. These are thoroughly pervasive experiences; we experience them every day of our lives. They are experiences with a structure-a correspondence between the conceptual domain of quantity and the conceptual domain of verticality: MORE corresponds in such experiences to UP and LESS corresponds to DOWN. These correspondences in real experience form the basis for the correspondence in the metaphorical cases, which go beyond the cases in real experience: in Prices rose there is no correspondence in real experience between quantity and verticality, but understanding quantity in terms of verticality makes sense because of the existence of a regular correspondence in so many other cases.
8. ACHIEVING A PURPOSE IS AGRICULTURE
It can be analyzed that there is one metaphorical data in Barrack Obama’s inaugural speech which showing the pattern of ACHIEVING A PURPOSE IS AGRICULTURE:
(11) To those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their society's ills on the West - know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy.
In the metaphorical expression (11) the part which acts as source domain is the phrase “seek to sow” whereas the target domain is “the conflict”. This quotation told us that the principle for under standing the domain of agriculture can be applied in terms of the domain of achieving a purpose. This has a unique metaphorical story line: The people who want to achieve a common goal are farming the land together, with their common life purpose seen as the farming crops as the result of their effort.
III. CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION
Having analyzed the data, the researcher can draw the conclusion that Obama has effectively and creatively used metaphorical expressions in convincing his people about his future plans. His remarkable speech discussing how to solve the great scale of the economic mess that now confronts the US and the common feeling of the loss of national self-confidence. These problems not so many people are seriously questioning. He has used the domain of “Movement” in explaining “Change”, the domain of “Location” over “States”, the domain of “Motion Over a Landscape” used to elaborate “States”, the domain of “War/Fight” had been used to describe “Politics”, the domain of “Transfer” in explaining “Actions”, the domain of “Journey” in describing “Politics” and the domain of “Agriculture” had been used in describing “Achieving a Purpose”.
Finally, the researcher suggest that there are many opportunities and facets to make a lingual research about this study particularly a research on the metaphorical expression of world’s famous speech like Barack Obama’s inauguration speech. This work requires deeper and broader observation, interpretation and analysis. The study towards this most outstanding figurative language offers deeper interpretation about the linguistic unique feature of formal speech. This suggestion is aimed to all language researcher and the students of English department , particularly the program of English linguistics.
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KRITIK SOSIAL POLITIK DALAM BAHASA PLESETAN
SBY-JK: Susah Bensin Ya Jalan Kaki
BBM : Baru Bisa Mimpi
KUHP: Kasih Uang Habis Perkara
Ungkapan bahasa yang “Deviant” atau “Nyeleneh” di atas mudah kita jumpai dalam acara-acara komedi di televisi dan radio dan juga dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Bahasa yang mengandung unsur humor yang menggelitik tersebut pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh pelawak Marwoto di TVRI Yogyakarta yang kemudian lebih populer dikembangkan oleh Kelik Pelipur Lara dari grup LBH (Lembaga Bantuan Humor). Kelik si raja plesetan ini mulai terkenal ketika dia pernah menjabat sebagai “Wakil Presiden” di acara Republik BBM (“Baru Bisa Mimpi”) dan sekarang tampil di acara “DemoCrazy” di MetroTV. Menurut Kelik bahasa plesetan bukan sekedar guyonan biasa tetapi merupakan humor cerdas yang bertujuan membuat orang mau berpikir atas persoalan sosial politik bangsa ini. Plesetan bukanlah sekedar lelucon. Ia adalah “perlawanan” terhadap hegemoni politik negara dengan bahasa nasionalnya yang dianggap telah begitu lama menguasai kehidupan sehari-hari warga biasa. Dalam bahasa plesetan dapat ditemukan persepsi yang unik dari rakyat biasa terhadap persoalan sosial politik yang diungkapkan dalam bentuk permainan bahasa.
Bahasa plesetan mulai populer pada tahun 1990-an. Tahun-tahun ketika isu sosial politik mulai menjadi pembicaraan yang hangat. Beberapa tayangan lawak yang disiarkan di televisi tidak lagi mengandalkan “guyonan garing” yang menampilkan kebodohan pelawak, melainkan mulai menggunakan gaya plesetan. Pada saat itu yang menjadi sasaran utama plesetan adalah isu-isu sosial politik, meskipun hal ini dilakukan dengan tidak terang-terangan. Bahasa plesetan pada masa itu merupakan refleksi ketidakpuasan masyarakat terhadap kekuasaan yang sifatnya sangat dominan.
Darimana kah asal-muasal bahasa plesetan ini? Yogyakarta adalah kota yang diyakini sebagai tempat kelahirannya. Di kota ini bahasa plesetan bukanlah sesuatu yang baru. Permainan bahasa ini diakrabi masyarakat sejak mereka masih kecil. Plesetan telah menjadi cara yang unik dan kreatif bagi masyarakat umum untuk menciptakan suasana yang penuh canda dan sejenak melepaskan diri dari himpitan persoalan kehidupan sehari-hari. Kemahiran dalam permainan bunyi kemudian menjadi salah satu modal yang penting bagi mereka untuk menjaga kedekatan dan keakraban satu sama lain.
Pengamat seni dan budaya seperti Alia Swastika meyakini bahwa kemahiran orang Yogya bermain plesetan ini disebabkan karena budaya mereka yang senang tampil beda dan juga kesenangan mengobrol dan melepas humor. Kebiasaan bersantai dengan lingkungan sepergaulan diwujudkan dengan kegiatan kumpul-kumpul sambil mengobrol tentang banyak hal .Dari sinilah kemudian muncul dialog dan cara menyampaikan ujaran-ujaran yang beragam, sampai lahir plesetan. Disamping itu, ada karakter khas orang Jawa yang sepertinya mempengaruhi kebiasaan plesetan mereka. Orang Jawa dianggap anti konflik dan tidak suka berterus terang. Jika tidak setuju akan sesuatu, orang Jawa cenderung menyampaikannya dengan bahasa yang halus untuk menghindari pertikaian. Karenanya, kritik-kritik kemudian disampaikan dengan “kemasan lain”, yang diharapkan tidak membuat pihak yang dikritik tersinggung. Humor adalah satu bentuk yang dianggap paling efektif.
Di tahun 1994, di Yogyakarta muncul fenomena baru dalam hal plesetan. Ada sekelompok mahasiswa UGM yang mendirikan perusahaan kaus oblong “Dagadu” menawarkan cinderamata alternatif khas Yogyakarta. Jika dilihat dari asal kata “Dagadu” adalah makian khas masyarakat Yogya yang berarti “Ma-ta-mu”. Rumus mengganti kata “matamu” dengan “dagadu” adalah rumus “Basa Walikan” yang merupakan salah satu variasi plesetan khas Yogyakarta. Bagi orang luar Yogya, untuk dapat mengerti basa walikan ini tidak cukup dengan mengerti bahasa Jawa saja, melainkan ia harus menguasai dua puluh karakter dasar huruf Jawa. Seperti halnya permainan bahasa yang lain, “Basa Walikan” ini adalah cara khas masyarakat kelas bawah untuk menampilkan identitas mereka. Lewat bahasa mereka mengukuhkan eksistensi—karena di luar wilayah itu, mereka tidak pernah diakui keberadaannya.
Hampir mirip dengan bahasa prokem di Jakarta “Basa Walikan” menjadi bahasa yang awalnya digunakan oleh preman-preman untuk melakukan komunikasi antar mereka dan menyampaikan informasi penting dan rahasia, demi melindungi mereka dari para penegak hukum. Masyarakat awam mulai mengambil bahasa ini untuk mencari nuansa yang berbeda, untuk menemukan cara yang lain dalam menyampaikan kritik dan ekspresi perasaan mereka. Basa Walikan tiba-tiba menjadi bahasa yang enak digunakan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.
Satu contohnya ialah plesetan Kata “Malio-Boro” menjadi “Malio-Boros’’. Dalam contoh ini terlihat jelas upaya bermain-main dengan keisengan kreatif dengan memberikan aksentuasi dan penambahan huruf ‘’s’’ pada kata ‘’Malioboro’’ yang bermuara perbedaan makna sangat signifikan. Konotasi kata ‘’Malioboro’’ plus huruf ‘’s’’ menjadi bermakna negatif dan kenegatifan ‘’Malio-boros’’ ini sengaja dieksploitasi dan dijual Dalam pandangan ide pihak Dagadu Djokdja, tema ‘’Malio-Boro menjadi Malio-Boros’’ dimaksudkan bahwa belanja di kawasan Malioboro itu “Marai” (“menyebabkan”) boros. Lewat pendekatan poster, para desainer Dagadu mencoba menyampaikan uneg-uneg kolektifnya untuk menyampaikan suatu keinginan sekaligus mengingatkan kepada kita betapa borosnya belanja di kaki lima sepanjang kawasan Malioboro. Pedagang lesehan yang menjual dagangannya tanpa memasang harga tarif secara wajar, ditambah pula dengan perilaku penjaja cinderamata yang menawarkan harga sangat tinggi. Selain itu , muncul pula fenomena warung-warung makan di pinggir jalan yang menggunakan formula plesetan yang terasa ‘mengejek’ hal-hal yang lebih mapan misalnya warung makan yang dinamai “Ken (”Disuruh”)-Tuku (”Membeli”) Fried Chicken”, atau “Ken-Chick” sebagai kebalikan dari kata ”Chicken”.
BBM : Baru Bisa Mimpi
KUHP: Kasih Uang Habis Perkara
Ungkapan bahasa yang “Deviant” atau “Nyeleneh” di atas mudah kita jumpai dalam acara-acara komedi di televisi dan radio dan juga dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Bahasa yang mengandung unsur humor yang menggelitik tersebut pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh pelawak Marwoto di TVRI Yogyakarta yang kemudian lebih populer dikembangkan oleh Kelik Pelipur Lara dari grup LBH (Lembaga Bantuan Humor). Kelik si raja plesetan ini mulai terkenal ketika dia pernah menjabat sebagai “Wakil Presiden” di acara Republik BBM (“Baru Bisa Mimpi”) dan sekarang tampil di acara “DemoCrazy” di MetroTV. Menurut Kelik bahasa plesetan bukan sekedar guyonan biasa tetapi merupakan humor cerdas yang bertujuan membuat orang mau berpikir atas persoalan sosial politik bangsa ini. Plesetan bukanlah sekedar lelucon. Ia adalah “perlawanan” terhadap hegemoni politik negara dengan bahasa nasionalnya yang dianggap telah begitu lama menguasai kehidupan sehari-hari warga biasa. Dalam bahasa plesetan dapat ditemukan persepsi yang unik dari rakyat biasa terhadap persoalan sosial politik yang diungkapkan dalam bentuk permainan bahasa.
Bahasa plesetan mulai populer pada tahun 1990-an. Tahun-tahun ketika isu sosial politik mulai menjadi pembicaraan yang hangat. Beberapa tayangan lawak yang disiarkan di televisi tidak lagi mengandalkan “guyonan garing” yang menampilkan kebodohan pelawak, melainkan mulai menggunakan gaya plesetan. Pada saat itu yang menjadi sasaran utama plesetan adalah isu-isu sosial politik, meskipun hal ini dilakukan dengan tidak terang-terangan. Bahasa plesetan pada masa itu merupakan refleksi ketidakpuasan masyarakat terhadap kekuasaan yang sifatnya sangat dominan.
Darimana kah asal-muasal bahasa plesetan ini? Yogyakarta adalah kota yang diyakini sebagai tempat kelahirannya. Di kota ini bahasa plesetan bukanlah sesuatu yang baru. Permainan bahasa ini diakrabi masyarakat sejak mereka masih kecil. Plesetan telah menjadi cara yang unik dan kreatif bagi masyarakat umum untuk menciptakan suasana yang penuh canda dan sejenak melepaskan diri dari himpitan persoalan kehidupan sehari-hari. Kemahiran dalam permainan bunyi kemudian menjadi salah satu modal yang penting bagi mereka untuk menjaga kedekatan dan keakraban satu sama lain.
Pengamat seni dan budaya seperti Alia Swastika meyakini bahwa kemahiran orang Yogya bermain plesetan ini disebabkan karena budaya mereka yang senang tampil beda dan juga kesenangan mengobrol dan melepas humor. Kebiasaan bersantai dengan lingkungan sepergaulan diwujudkan dengan kegiatan kumpul-kumpul sambil mengobrol tentang banyak hal .Dari sinilah kemudian muncul dialog dan cara menyampaikan ujaran-ujaran yang beragam, sampai lahir plesetan. Disamping itu, ada karakter khas orang Jawa yang sepertinya mempengaruhi kebiasaan plesetan mereka. Orang Jawa dianggap anti konflik dan tidak suka berterus terang. Jika tidak setuju akan sesuatu, orang Jawa cenderung menyampaikannya dengan bahasa yang halus untuk menghindari pertikaian. Karenanya, kritik-kritik kemudian disampaikan dengan “kemasan lain”, yang diharapkan tidak membuat pihak yang dikritik tersinggung. Humor adalah satu bentuk yang dianggap paling efektif.
Di tahun 1994, di Yogyakarta muncul fenomena baru dalam hal plesetan. Ada sekelompok mahasiswa UGM yang mendirikan perusahaan kaus oblong “Dagadu” menawarkan cinderamata alternatif khas Yogyakarta. Jika dilihat dari asal kata “Dagadu” adalah makian khas masyarakat Yogya yang berarti “Ma-ta-mu”. Rumus mengganti kata “matamu” dengan “dagadu” adalah rumus “Basa Walikan” yang merupakan salah satu variasi plesetan khas Yogyakarta. Bagi orang luar Yogya, untuk dapat mengerti basa walikan ini tidak cukup dengan mengerti bahasa Jawa saja, melainkan ia harus menguasai dua puluh karakter dasar huruf Jawa. Seperti halnya permainan bahasa yang lain, “Basa Walikan” ini adalah cara khas masyarakat kelas bawah untuk menampilkan identitas mereka. Lewat bahasa mereka mengukuhkan eksistensi—karena di luar wilayah itu, mereka tidak pernah diakui keberadaannya.
Hampir mirip dengan bahasa prokem di Jakarta “Basa Walikan” menjadi bahasa yang awalnya digunakan oleh preman-preman untuk melakukan komunikasi antar mereka dan menyampaikan informasi penting dan rahasia, demi melindungi mereka dari para penegak hukum. Masyarakat awam mulai mengambil bahasa ini untuk mencari nuansa yang berbeda, untuk menemukan cara yang lain dalam menyampaikan kritik dan ekspresi perasaan mereka. Basa Walikan tiba-tiba menjadi bahasa yang enak digunakan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.
Satu contohnya ialah plesetan Kata “Malio-Boro” menjadi “Malio-Boros’’. Dalam contoh ini terlihat jelas upaya bermain-main dengan keisengan kreatif dengan memberikan aksentuasi dan penambahan huruf ‘’s’’ pada kata ‘’Malioboro’’ yang bermuara perbedaan makna sangat signifikan. Konotasi kata ‘’Malioboro’’ plus huruf ‘’s’’ menjadi bermakna negatif dan kenegatifan ‘’Malio-boros’’ ini sengaja dieksploitasi dan dijual Dalam pandangan ide pihak Dagadu Djokdja, tema ‘’Malio-Boro menjadi Malio-Boros’’ dimaksudkan bahwa belanja di kawasan Malioboro itu “Marai” (“menyebabkan”) boros. Lewat pendekatan poster, para desainer Dagadu mencoba menyampaikan uneg-uneg kolektifnya untuk menyampaikan suatu keinginan sekaligus mengingatkan kepada kita betapa borosnya belanja di kaki lima sepanjang kawasan Malioboro. Pedagang lesehan yang menjual dagangannya tanpa memasang harga tarif secara wajar, ditambah pula dengan perilaku penjaja cinderamata yang menawarkan harga sangat tinggi. Selain itu , muncul pula fenomena warung-warung makan di pinggir jalan yang menggunakan formula plesetan yang terasa ‘mengejek’ hal-hal yang lebih mapan misalnya warung makan yang dinamai “Ken (”Disuruh”)-Tuku (”Membeli”) Fried Chicken”, atau “Ken-Chick” sebagai kebalikan dari kata ”Chicken”.
Bedanya Kata "House" dan "Home"
Dalam bahasa Inggris kata "rumah" memiliki dua kata yang sering dipake yaitu House dan Home. Kata "house" artinya rumah secara fisik. hanya dari segi bangunannya saja, sedangkan kata "Home" adale rumah secara pyschologis. artinya dari segi kaitan jiwa, hubungan batin antar anggota keluarga. ada kehangatan di situ.Mangkenye ada istile "Homesick" gak ada "HOuseSick". itu lho penyakit kanget rumah alias penyakit HOmeSickness. trus kalo keluarge ancur berantakan namanya "Broken Home" bukan "BrokenHouse". kalo broken house mah rumah kena gempa. udah jadi damage semua. jadi ruin dan beneath the remains.trus kalo bicara agama Islam, ada hadist nabi;Rumahku adalah sorgakuapa hubungan sabda Rasulullah SAW dengan bedanya kata HOuse dan Home? My Lovely Ustadz menjelaskan bahwa Rumah beliau adalah rumah secara psikologis. di rumah beliau tak ada perabotan mahal. tak ada perhiasan mahal dan makanan lezat bahkan sampai akhir hayat beliau belum pernah dahar roti dari bahan yang lembut. semua bahannya dari bahan yang kasar. coba bandingkan dengan kehidupan kita?
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